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Wedish is a conservative Judeo-Christian language spoken only between a husband and a wife.  It is meant to appeal to Indo-European and Semitic language speakers.  It sounds like Anglish (Germanic English without Latin influence), has Hebrew/Aramaic verbs but a variety of other influences.
Weddish is a conservative Judeo-Christian auxlanglanguage spoken only between a husband and a wife.  It is meant to appeal to Indo-European and Semitic language speakers.  It sounds like Anglish (Germanic English without Latin influence), has Hebrew/Aramaic verbs but a variety of other influences.


== Phonology ==
== Phonology ==
Generally speaking, Wedish has British English consonants, Spanish vowels, and Yiddish phonotactics.  The Roman alphabet (plus two unusual letters) is used as a partial abjad, though the Hebrew alphabet can be used.  The writing of vowels is typically skipped, except in dictionaries and some poetry.  '''A''', '''H''', and '''E''' (and '''W''' and '''Y''') are used a ''mater lectionis'', i.e. hints as to the unwritten vowels.  '''A''' usually means an /a/ or /o/ at the beginning of a word, '''H''' at the end. '''E''' indicates initial /e/ or /i/
Generally speaking, Wedish has British English consonants, Spanish vowels, and Yiddish phonotactics.  The Roman alphabet (plus two unusual letters) is used as a partial abjad, though the Hebrew alphabet can be used.  The writing of vowels is typically skipped, except in dictionaries and some poetry.  '''A''', '''H''', and '''E''' (and '''W''' and '''Y''') are used a ''mater lectionis'', i.e. hints as to the unwritten vowels.  '''A''' usually means an /a/ or /o/ at the beginning of a word, '''H''' at the end. '''E''' indicates initial /e/ or /i/


'''O''', '''I''', and '''U''' are not used, though '''I''' is placed before '''T''' and '''D''' in electronic contexts where '''Ŧ''' and '''Ð''' are not available (i.e. '''IT'''='''Ŧ''' and '''ID'''='''Ð''').
'''Y''' is not used.  '''H''' is placed after '''S''' and '''Z''' in electronic contexts where '''Š''' and '''Ž''' are not available (i.e. '''SH'''='''Š''' and '''ZH'''='''Ž''').


=== Consonants ===
=== Consonants ===
Line 38: Line 38:
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || C || J
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || C || J
|-
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || U~W  || || L || || || || I~Ⅱ
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || U~W<ref>Ideally, only W's with curly bottoms (not pointed) should be used, so as to look as the name literally says "double u".</ref> || || L || || || || I~II
|-
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || R
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || R
Line 138: Line 138:
| J̤T || jēt
| J̤T || jēt
|-
|-
! Ŧ || צ/ץ
! C || צ/ץ
| Ŧ̱D̤Y || chādei
| C̱D̤Y || chādei
|}
|}


=== Vowels ===
=== Vowels ===
Weddish has 7 vowels (just above average<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/2</ref>), which is more than Hebrew and Yiddish, but less than English and German.
Weddish has 7 vowels (just above average<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/2</ref>), which is more than Hebrew and Yiddish, but far less than English and German. Like English, vowel length is not phonemic.  Technically, there are three vowel qualities (long, short, and reduced), but functionally it is better to contrast schwa with everything else.  Similar to the Hebrew practice of ''ketiv male'', certain letters are used to "hint" which vowels are meant.
 
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
Line 149: Line 150:
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central  ||colspan=2| Back
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central  ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}}~{{IPA|ɪ}}<ref>/i/ and /e/ may be rounded without phonemic contrast. http://wals.info/chapter/11</ref> || || || || || || ||  {{IPA|u}}
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}}~{{IPA|ɪ}}<ref>/i/ and /e/ may be rounded without phonemic contrast. http://wals.info/chapter/11</ref> || || || || || || ||  {{IPA|u}}~{{IPA|ʊ}}
|-
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}}~{{IPA|ɛ}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}}~{{IPA|ɛ}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}~{{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || || {{IPA|ə}}
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || || {{IPA|ə}}
Line 159: Line 160:
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align: middle; float:left;"
|+ Full Spelling
|
! Initially || Medially || Finally
|-
! /a/
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle;"| A
| colspan="2" | A
|-
! /æ/
| E
| {{No}}
|-
! /e/
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle;"| E
| Ø
| {{No}}
|-
! /i/
| I
| E
|-
! /j/
| I
| II
| {{No}}
|-
! /o/
| colspan="2" | O
| {{No}}
|-
! /u/
| colspan="3" | U
|-
! /w/
| colspan="2" | UU
| {{No}}
|-
! /ai/
| colspan="3" | AI
|-
! /ei/
| EI
| colspan="2" | I
|-
! /oi/
| colspan="3" | OI
|-
! /au/
| colspan="3" | AU
|-
! /ou/
| colspan="2" | OU
| O
|-
! /ə/
| {{No}}
| style="text-align:center;" |  ' <ref>When texting on older phones, a period may be used instead.</ref>
| {{No}}
|-
! ''cluster''
| colspan="3" | Ø
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;  "
|+ Defective Spelling
|
! Initially || Medially || Finally
|-
! /a/
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle;" | A
| rowspan="4" style="vertical-align: middle;" | Ø
| A
|-
! /æ/
| {{No}}
|-
! /e/
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle;" | E
| {{No}}
|-
! /i/
| colspan="2" | E
|-
! /j/
| I
| I
| {{No}}
|-
! /o/
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle;" | O
| O
| {{No}}
|-
! /u/
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle;" | U
| U
|-
! /w/
| U
| {{No}}
|-
! /ai/
| AI
| rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;" | I
|-
! /ei/
| EI
|-
! /oi/
| OI
|-
! /au/
| AU
| rowspan="2" colspan="2"  style="vertical-align: middle;" | U
|-
! /ou/
| OU
|-
! /ə/
| {{No}}
| Ø
| {{No}}
|-
! ''cluster''
| colspan="3" | Ø
|}
<br clear="left" />
==== Niqqud ====
The Hebrew vowel points are used around Latin letters, with only slight modification.  The glottal stop '''A''' is used here as a place holder.
The Hebrew vowel points are used around Latin letters, with only slight modification.  The glottal stop '''A''' is used here as a place holder.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 275: Line 408:


=== Person ===
=== Person ===
Wedish has the typical 3-person distinction.  However, given the limited circumstances where this language is spoken, there is only a first-person singular and dual, second-person singular, and the third-persons.  Number is not distinguished in the third person except by plural markers on the noun/pronoun.<ref>All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers." - Greenberg's linguistic universals.  However, "A number languages make fewer than six distinctions.  These include Pidgin languages such as Samoan Plantation Pidgin English ... but also full languages. (La Typologiedes Langues Et Les Universaux Linguistiques, Martin Haspelmath (2001), 741)</ref>
Wedish lacks the full 3-person distinction on verbs but not in pronouns<ref>All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers." - Greenberg's linguistic universals.  However, "A number languages make fewer than six distinctions.  These include Pidgin languages such as Samoan Plantation Pidgin English ... but also full languages. (La Typologiedes Langues Et Les Universaux Linguistiques, Martin Haspelmath (2001), 741)</ref>.  Recall the limited circumstances where this language is spoken.  To encourage the couple to remember that they are one, only "we" statements are possible, though non-subject pronouns exist for "me" and "you".  Thus, it is possible to say "I did this" by paraphrasis: "We did this via me."


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! # || Designation || Use || Example
! Person || Singular || Dual || Plural
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1st (Ego)
| '''1st Person Singular'''
| {{Yes|Pronoun Only}}
| Referring to the Ego.
| rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"| Yes
| I am here.
| {{No}}
|-
|-
! 1D
! 2nd (Spouse)
| '''1st Person Dual'''
| {{Yes|Pronoun Only}}
| Referring to the couple.
 
| We are here.
| {{No}}
|-
! 2S
| '''2nd Person Singular'''
| Referring to the Interlocutor.
| You are here.
|-
|-
! 3A
! 3 Animate
| '''3rd Person Animate'''
| style="text-align:center;" | Yes
| Refers to that which is considered animate.
| Yes
| He/She is gone.
| Yes
|-
|-
! 3N
! 3 Nanimate
| '''3rd Person iNanimater'''
| style="text-align:center;" | Yes
| Refers to that which is considered inanime
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" {{Yes}}
| It is gone.
|}
|}


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Weddish is not a language with case, ''per se''.  Instead, like English, there are vestigial cases on the pronouns only<ref> "If in a language the verb follows both the nominal subject and nominal object as the dominant order, the language almost always has a case system." - Greenberg's linguistic universals #41</ref>
Weddish is not a language with case, ''per se''.  Instead, like English, there are vestigial cases on the pronouns only<ref> "If in a language the verb follows both the nominal subject and nominal object as the dominant order, the language almost always has a case system." - Greenberg's linguistic universals #41</ref>


There are no cases, per se.  The ergative, or subject of a transitive clause must come before the verb,unless it is emphatic or a question (similar to English).  The absolute (when denoting the object of the verb) must come after the verb, unless the clause is emphatic or a question.  Genitive relationships are expressed through via the independent participle '''OV''' or its allomorph, the suffix ''''-V'''  (cp. English "of").  Dative relationships come by T/T-.  Ablative is handled by BO/B-.  Only pronouns have separate morphology for these cases.
Like Hebrew (and a little like English), '''''inseparable preposition''''' mark the cases.  In more poetic registers, these pronouns as exist as whole words.  The attach before the articles.


There are no ditransitive verbs in Wedish.  All truly modal auxiliary verbs take infinitive verb objects.
{| class="wikitable"
! Proclitic form || Independent form || Meaning
|-
! H
| HN || Ergative
|-
! D
| DY || Genitive
|-
! L
| LMO || Dative
|-
! B
| BMO || Ablative
|-
! M
| MN || Partitive/Elative
|-
! K
| KMO || Equative
|-
! EL
| EL || Locative
|-
! AL
| AL || Lative
|-
! ED
| ED || Terminative
|-
! EM
| EM || Comitative
|-
! TXT
| TXT || Subessive
|-
! BED
| BED || Behind
|-
! AXR
| AXRY || After
|-
! LFN
| LNFY || Before
|}
 
There are no truly ditransitive verbs in Wedish.  All truly modal auxiliary verbs take infinitive verb objects.


=== Number ===
=== Number ===
Line 335: Line 508:
|}
|}


=== Gender ===
=== Gender/Animacy ===
There is more gender in Weddish than in English but less than in Hebrew, Yiddish, or German.  Basically, things of high animacy ''or importance'' are grammatically animate.  However, as in English, there is no agreement to keep track of, other than on the third person pronouns.<ref>"If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun." - Greenberg's linguistic universal #43</ref>
There is more gender in Weddish than in English but less than in Hebrew, Yiddish, or German.  Basically, things of high animacy ''or importance'' are grammatically animate.  However, as in English, there is no agreement to keep track of, other than on the third person pronouns.<ref>"If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun." - Greenberg's linguistic universal #43</ref>


Line 434: Line 607:
|-
|-
! 1S  
! 1S  
| A̱ṆY || MR || NW || NY || BNW
| {{No}} || MR || NW || NY || BNW
|-
|-
! 1D
! 1D
Line 440: Line 613:
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| DW || DK/DX || DYN || DY || DR
| {{No}} || DK/DX || DYN || DY || DR
|-
|-
! 3A
! 3AS
| HW || O ||
| HW || O ||
|-
|-
! 3N
! 3AD
|-
! 3AP
|-
! 3NS
|-
! 3NP
|}
|}
== Adjectives/Participles ==
== Adjectives/Participles ==

Revision as of 19:26, 4 September 2013

Weddish is a conservative Judeo-Christian auxlanglanguage spoken only between a husband and a wife. It is meant to appeal to Indo-European and Semitic language speakers. It sounds like Anglish (Germanic English without Latin influence), has Hebrew/Aramaic verbs but a variety of other influences.

Phonology

Generally speaking, Wedish has British English consonants, Spanish vowels, and Yiddish phonotactics. The Roman alphabet (plus two unusual letters) is used as a partial abjad, though the Hebrew alphabet can be used. The writing of vowels is typically skipped, except in dictionaries and some poetry. A, H, and E (and W and Y) are used a mater lectionis, i.e. hints as to the unwritten vowels. A usually means an /a/ or /o/ at the beginning of a word, H at the end. E indicates initial /e/ or /i/

Y is not used. H is placed after S and Z in electronic contexts where Š and Ž are not available (i.e. SH=Š and ZH=Ž).

Consonants

There are about 25 consonants in Weddish, which is average[1]. This is consistent with English, German, Yiddish, and Modern Hebrew.

Consonants in IPA
Labial Alveolar Post-alv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ[2]
Plosive p b t d k g ʔ[3]
Fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ x~χ h
Affricate tʃ~θ[4] dʒ~ð
Approximants w l j
Trill r~ʁ (ɻ)
Consonants as Written
Labial Alveolar Post-alv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal M N
Plosive P B T D K G
Fricative F V S Z Š Ž X H
Affricate C J
Approximants U~W[5] L I~II
Trill R
Consonants in Hebrew Alphabet
Labial Alveolar Post-alv. Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal מ/ם נ/ן
Plosive פּ/ףּ בּ ת ד כ/ך ג
Fricative פ/ף ב שׂ ז שׁ ס ח ה
Affricate צ/ץ ט
Approximants ו~װ ל י~ײ
Trill ר


Q (ק) is used for the uvular sound /q/ (as in Quran/Koran), but is /k/ in everything but one dialect. R is pronounced as a alveolar or uvular trill, but Americans tend to produce it as a retroflex approximant (which can make them hard to understand!).

Latin Hebrew Name Name
A א A̱L̩F ālef
B בּ B̤YT beyt
C שׁ C̣N shīn
D דּ ḎL̩T dalet
E ע E̤ỴN eyin
F פ/ף E̤F ēff
G ג G̣M̩L gimel
H ה H̤H hēh
Ð ס Ð̱M̩K zhāmek
K כ/ך ḴF kāf
L ל ḺM̩D lamed
M מ/ם M̤M mēm
N נ/ן N̖N nūn
P פּ/ףּ P̤Y pei
Q ק Q̇F qōf
R ר R̤C rēsh
S שׂ E̤S ēss
T ת ṮW tau
V ב ṾY vī
W ו W̱W wau
X ח X̤T xēt
Y י ẎD yōd
Z ז ẔỴN zayin
J ט J̤T jēt
C צ/ץ C̱D̤Y chādei

Vowels

Weddish has 7 vowels (just above average[6]), which is more than Hebrew and Yiddish, but far less than English and German. Like English, vowel length is not phonemic. Technically, there are three vowel qualities (long, short, and reduced), but functionally it is better to contrast schwa with everything else. Similar to the Hebrew practice of ketiv male, certain letters are used to "hint" which vowels are meant.

Vowels
Front Near-front Central Back
High i~ɪ[7] u~ʊ
High-mid e~ɛ o~ɔ
Mid ə
Near-low æ
Low a
Full Spelling
Initially Medially Finally
/a/ A A
/æ/ E No
/e/ E Ø No
/i/ I E
/j/ I II No
/o/ O No
/u/ U
/w/ UU No
/ai/ AI
/ei/ EI I
/oi/ OI
/au/ AU
/ou/ OU O
/ə/ No ' [8] No
cluster Ø
Defective Spelling
Initially Medially Finally
/a/ A Ø A
/æ/ No
/e/ E No
/i/ E
/j/ I I No
/o/ O O No
/u/ U U
/w/ U No
/ai/ AI I
/ei/ EI
/oi/ OI
/au/ AU U
/ou/ OU
/ə/ No Ø No
cluster Ø


Niqqud

The Hebrew vowel points are used around Latin letters, with only slight modification. The glottal stop A is used here as a place holder.

Written Sound Name
Ạ /i/ as in feet or fit Hireq/ḤR̩Q
A̤ /e/ as in bet or bait Sereh/S̤R̩H
A̞ /æ/ as in Sally Qæmets/Q̞M̩T̩S
ֻA /u/ as in boot Shureq/C̖R̩Q 3 dots is formal. A slanted line is also used, i.e. A̖
Ȧ /o/ as in boat* Holem/ḢL̩M
A̱ /a/ as in father Pātax/P̱AṮX
ְA /ə/ as in careen Schwa/ְCW̱ In typed contexts, the schwa is often written as a line: i.e. A̩

The Schwa may or may not be indicative of a separate syllable (see Phonotactics below).

A tilde above a letter makes it syllabic, that is, the nucleus of a syllable. Only M̃, Ñ, and L̃ may take the tilde.

There are many diphthongs in quick speech, but they are pronounced separately (i.e. two syllables) in careful speech.

Vowel nazalization is non-phonemic[9].

Phonotactics/Prosody

Weddish has an average consonant-to-vowel ratio, which is the same as Hebrew and Yiddish, but higher than English or German[10]. Neither vowel length nor stress is phonemic. Long vowels indicate stress[11]. This is like German, English, and Yiddish, but unlike Hebrew[12]. So too, if the word is very long, one of the last three syllables must be primary stress[13]. Initial consonant clusters can only be two letters long, unless they start with S or C. Final consonant clusters can only be two letters long, which even limits even combinations which would produce a third, epenthetic consonant. This syllable structure may be relatively simpler, but it is still highly complex on the global scale[14], like English, German, Yiddish, and Hebrew.

The default rhythm of Weddish is trochaic, stress-unstressed[15].

Onset

All single consonant phonemes except /ŋ/
Stop or affricate plus approximant PL, PR, BL, BR, KW, KL, KR, KY, GW, GL, GR, GY, TW, DW, ŦW, ŦL, ŦR, ŦJ, ÐR but not PW, PY, BW, BY, TL, TR, TY, DL, DR, DY, ÐL, ÐY, ÐW
Fricative plus approximant FW, FL, FR, FY, VW, VL, VR, VY, SW, SL, ZW, CW, CL, CR, JW, JL, JR, XW, XL, XR but not SR, SY, ZL, ZR, ZY, CY, JY, XY
S or C plus voiceless stop, M, or N SP, ST, SK, SM, SN, CP, CT, CK, CM, CN
S or C plus voiceless stop or affricate plus approximant: SPL, SPR, SKW, SKL, SKR, SKY, STW, SŦW, SŦR, CPL, CPR, CKW, CKL, SKR, CKY, CTW, CŦW, CŦR but not SPW, SPY, STL, STR, STY, SŦL, SŦJ, CPW, CPY, CTL, CTR, CTY, CŦL, CŦJ

Coda

The single consonant phonemes except H, W, Y, R
Lateral approximant plus stop or affricate: LP, LB, LT, LD, LC, LJ, LŦ, LÐ, LK, LG
Lateral approximant + fricative: LF, LV, LS, LZ, LC, LJ, LX
Lateral approximant + nasal: LM, LN but not LNG
Nasal + homorganic stop or affricate MP, MB, NT, ND, NŦ, NÐ, NGK, NGG NGK and NGG are just spelled NK and NG
Voiceless fricative plus voiceless stop: FP, FT, FK, SP, ST, SK, CP, CT, CK, XP, XT, XK
Two voiceless fricatives: FS, FC, CS, XS, XC But not FX, SF, SC, SX, CF, CX, XF
Two voiceless stops: PK, PT, KT, But not KP, TK, TP
Stop plus voice-matching fricative: PS, PC, BZ, BJ, TS, TX, DZ, KF, KS, KC, KX, GZ, GJ But not PF, PX, BV, TF, DV, GV

TC=Ŧ, DJ=Ð

More complicated consonant clusters than these may be possible across syllable boundaries, but require epenthetic vowels.

Grammar

Because this language is only ever spoken between two, specific people, a great deal of narrowing in scope is possible.

Person

Wedish lacks the full 3-person distinction on verbs but not in pronouns[16]. Recall the limited circumstances where this language is spoken. To encourage the couple to remember that they are one, only "we" statements are possible, though non-subject pronouns exist for "me" and "you". Thus, it is possible to say "I did this" by paraphrasis: "We did this via me."

Person Singular Dual Plural
1st (Ego) Pronoun Only Yes No
2nd (Spouse) Pronoun Only No
3 Animate Yes Yes Yes
3 Nanimate Yes Yes

Case

Weddish is not a language with case, per se. Instead, like English, there are vestigial cases on the pronouns only[17]

Like Hebrew (and a little like English), inseparable preposition mark the cases. In more poetic registers, these pronouns as exist as whole words. The attach before the articles.

Proclitic form Independent form Meaning
H HN Ergative
D DY Genitive
L LMO Dative
B BMO Ablative
M MN Partitive/Elative
K KMO Equative
EL EL Locative
AL AL Lative
ED ED Terminative
EM EM Comitative
TXT TXT Subessive
BED BED Behind
AXR AXRY After
LFN LNFY Before

There are no truly ditransitive verbs in Wedish. All truly modal auxiliary verbs take infinitive verb objects.

Number

Broadly speaking, Wedish recognizes three numbers: singular, dual, and plural[18]. However, there are three different plurals: collective, distributive and associative. As with most languages, the unmarked form of the word is the singular.

Word Meaning
Ð̩Ŧ̱YLD the child (1)
Ð̩Ŧ̱YLD̤M the children (2)
Ð̩Ŧ̱YLD̤Z the children (many, as a group)
Ð̩Ŧ̱YLD̤N the children (many, as individuals)
Ð̩Ŧ̱YLD̤YR the child and his/her associates

Gender/Animacy

There is more gender in Weddish than in English but less than in Hebrew, Yiddish, or German. Basically, things of high animacy or importance are grammatically animate. However, as in English, there is no agreement to keep track of, other than on the third person pronouns.[19]

Definiteness

Exactly as in English, there are three kinds of definiteness in Wedish. The definite and indefinite articles are particles that attach the front of a word and may be applied to nouns of any number (unlike English). Without any article, nouns are by nature abstract. For example, ÐŦYLD (the child) refers to one specific child of the couples, NŦYLD refers to one non-specific child of the couples, but ŦYLD refers to "the state of being one a child of ours".

Verbs

[20]Wedish verbs agree with the subject/actor in person only. Tense is the main idea encoded in the verb[21], with aspectual qualities typically requiring adverbs or postpositional phrases. Noun incorporation is common. Incorporated verb phrases may still take either an ergative or an absolutive subject, to indicate intentionality. There is poly-personal agreement.

The future tense is intentional for the 1st person and suppositional for the 2nd and 3rd.

The only (but exceedingly common) auxiliary verb is the "to be" verb, which precedes the verb it modifies and is conjugated the same way.[22]

Kinds of Verbs

Hollow Verbs
The middle consonant is a semi-vowel (Y or W). The resulting forms all have a long vowel or diphthong in the stem-based syllable.
Initial Consonant Cluster
2 or 3 consonants begin the verb and 1 ends it. The initial group stays together and the theme vowel is /a/ or /e/.
Final Consonant Cluster
The first consonant is alone, followed by the vowel /a/ or /e/, but then ended by a consonant cluster. This final group is often broken up in conjugation.
Hollow Verb Paradigm
Tense Number Form
Past 1 ḶYPN̖W
2 ḶYP̖W
3 ḶYP̱H
Present 1 LỴP̤N
2 LỴP
3 LỴP̤T
Future 1 N̖WḶYP
2 ṚḶYP
3 W̞ḶYP


The "to-be" verb is separated into two related verbs, like Korean 있다 and 이다, Japanese います and です, or Chinese 有 and 是.

Copulative
Past 1M TYYTY
1F TYYNW
2M HYYT
2F HYYT
2D HYYTW
3 HT
Present 1M


Noun Incorporation

The Object of a verb may be folded into the verb. Examples from English include "to sit" + "baby" = "to babysit", and "to pick" + "cherry" = "to cherry-pick". This is only done with habitual actions, and implies a certain frequency to the action. For example, only a professional student would say "to paper-write". Such verbs may take an ergative or absolutive subject, or be made anti-passive.

Nouns

Relative clauses immediately follow the noun they modify, as do adjectives and demonstratives, but not numerals[23]. Genitives are post-nominal, expressed by a postclitic.

"If in apposition the proper noun usually precedes the common noun, then the language is one in which the governing noun precedes its dependent genitive. With much better than chance frequency, if the common noun usually precedes the proper noun, the dependent genitive precedes its governing noun." #23


Pronoun table
# Ergative Absolutive Genitive Dative Ablative
1S No MR NW NY BNW
1D ẈY O̖S O̱AS WY BRS
2S No DK/DX DYN DY DR
3AS HW O
3AD
3AP
3NS
3NP

Adjectives/Participles

Adjectives may not be used as substantives without being changed into a noun. Only then may they take inflection for number. Otherwise, adjectives are always unadorned and follow the noun they modify.

"When any or all of the items (demonstrative, numeral, and descriptive adjective) precede the noun, they are always found in that order. If they follow, the order is either the same or its exact opposite." #20

Derivational Morphology

Grammatical parts of speech are somewhere stricter than in English. For example, adjectives cannot be used substantively without a suffix. Somewhat like German, however, rich compounding and word-building is possible[24]

Form Expects Produces Meaning
-NS Adjective Noun "The quality of being ..." (cp. -ness)
C- Noun Noun "The language of ..." (cp. -ish)
YY- Noun Noun "An inhabitant of ..."

Discourse Participles

XTATY
(Lit. Heb. "I have sinned") This is very much like the English opening phrase "I confess that". While (like everything) it is possible to abuse this phrase, it typically begins an utterance with an air of confession, humility and perhaps even admission of guilt.

"With well more than chance frequency, when question particles or affixes are specified in position by reference to the sentence as a whole, if initial, such elements are found in prepositional languages, and, if final, in postpositional." - Greenberg's linguistic universals #9

Lexicon

LYP to jump Hollow

References

  1. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/1
  2. ↑ Hebrew speakers are unable to make this sound, but are understood without difficulty. See http://wals.info/chapter/9
  3. ↑ Only when a word beginning with a vowel follows a word ending with a vowel is a glottal stop epenthesized.
  4. ↑ /θ/ is so rare, I feel compel to include it only as an allophone, in the interest of being as appealing as possible across Europe and the Middle-East. http://wals.info/chapter/19
  5. ↑ Ideally, only W's with curly bottoms (not pointed) should be used, so as to look as the name literally says "double u".
  6. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/2
  7. ↑ /i/ and /e/ may be rounded without phonemic contrast. http://wals.info/chapter/11
  8. ↑ When texting on older phones, a period may be used instead.
  9. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/10
  10. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/3
  11. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/16
  12. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/14
  13. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/15
  14. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/12
  15. ↑ http://wals.info/chapter/17
  16. ↑ All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two numbers." - Greenberg's linguistic universals. However, "A number languages make fewer than six distinctions. These include Pidgin languages such as Samoan Plantation Pidgin English ... but also full languages. (La Typologiedes Langues Et Les Universaux Linguistiques, Martin Haspelmath (2001), 741)
  17. ↑ "If in a language the verb follows both the nominal subject and nominal object as the dominant order, the language almost always has a case system." - Greenberg's linguistic universals #41
  18. ↑ "...No language has a dual unless it has a plural." - Greenberg's linguistic universals #34b, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg%27s_linguistic_universals
  19. ↑ "If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun." - Greenberg's linguistic universal #43
  20. ↑ This is the one area of grammar that is largely ablaut based. Almost all other derivational morphology is concatenating. http://wals.info/chapter/20
  21. ↑ "If the verb has categories of person-number or if it has categories of gender, it always has tense-mode categories." - Greenberg's linguistic universals #30, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg%27s_linguistic_universals
  22. ↑ "If the nominal object always precedes the verb, then verb forms subordinate to the main verb also precede it." - Greenberg's linguistic universals #13
  23. ↑ "When the general rule is that the descriptive adjective follows, there may be a minority of adjectives which usually precede, but when the general rule is that descriptive adjectives precede, there are no exceptions." #19 but http://wals.info/chapter/89
  24. ↑ "If a language has inflection, it always has derivation." - Greenberg's linguistic universals #29, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg%27s_linguistic_universals
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