Xowʂiko morphology
- Main article: Xowʂiko
This page gives an extensive description of Xowʂiko morphological features.
Nouns
Nouns in Xowʂiko language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ä-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or first class and inanimate nouns or second class. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:
- 1st class: human beings, animals, deities
- 2nd class: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.
For example, the word säɳo, sun, shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, as the noun qacow, wind, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree.
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.
There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural.
Cases
Kī́rtako nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 9 cases:
| Nominative | This case marks the subject of a verb |
| Accusative | This case marks the direct object of a verb. It is also used with some postpositions. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and as its citation form. It is also used as the vocative form. |
| Ablative | This case marks primarily a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, body parts), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging. It also marks the point of origin of a movement (motion from a place). It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb. |
| Genitive | This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1st class. |
| Dative | This case marks primarily the indirect object. It can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place), and, in a broad sense, the final purpose of an action or a state. |
| Causative | This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state. |
| Instrumental | This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class. |
| Abessive | This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class. |
| Locative | This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class. |
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:
- Main cases: nominative, accusative
- Primary oblique cases: ablative, dative, causative
- Secondary oblique cases: genitive
- Tertiary oblique cases: instrumental, abessive, locative
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various prepositions, which can select one or more cases.
Noun declension
Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:
| -li | -noli | -li | -noli | |
| - | -no | - | -no | |
| -ʂu | -noʂu | -ʂu | -noʂu | |
| -ra | -nora | |||
| -ŕä | -noŕä | -ŕä | -noŕä | |
| -ɣu | -noɣu | -ɣu | -noɣu | |
| -ɣä | -noɣä | |||
| -wil1 | -nowil | |||
| -ʈar | -noʈar | |||
1This ending changes into -il, when added to a noun ending in -w.
Some examples are shown below: a 1st class noun, papu, father, and a 2nd class noun, sowo, house.
| papuli | papunoli | sowoli | sowonoli | |
| papu | papuno | sowo | sowono | |
| papuʂu | papunošu | sowoʂu | sowonoʂu | |
| papura | papunora | |||
| papuŕä | papunoŕä | sowoŕä | sowonoŕä | |
| papuɣu | papunoɣu | sowoɣu | sowonoɣu | |
| sowoɣä | sowonoɣä | |||
| sowowil | sowonowil | |||
| sowoʈar | sowonoʈar | |||
As for the rules, the endings for the tertiary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1st class noun, while the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 2st class noun.
Adjectives and pronouns
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.
Adjectives
Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.
xowpajli hjyroli (the) young man
hjyroli xowpajli qäɳ (the) man is young
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.
xowpajra hjyrora rjeqoli sowoli piwkoʈar häciʈar mjeqis the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village
Declension of qualifying adjectives
Example: rjeqo, new
| rjeqoli | rjeqonoli | |
| rjeqo | rjeqono | |
| rjeqoʂu | rjeqonoʂu | |
| rjeqora | rjeqonora | |
| rjeqoŕä | rjeqonoŕä | |
| rjeqoɣu | rjeqonoɣu | |
| rjeqoɣä | rjeqonoɣä | |
| rjeqowil | rjeqonowil | |
| rjeqoʈar | rjeqonoʈar | |
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns are:
| xoli | näli | niwli | xonoli | nänoli | niwnoli | |
| xo | nä | niw | xono | näno | niwno | |
| xoʂu | näʂu | niwʂu | xonoʂu | nänoʂu | niwnoʂu | |
| xora | nära | niwra | xonora | nänora | niwnora | |
| xoŕä | näŕä | niwŕä | xonoŕä | nänoŕä | niwnoŕä | |
| xoɣu | näɣu | niwɣu | xonoɣu | nänoɣu | niwnoɣu | |
| niwɣä | niwnoɣä | |||||
| niwil | niwnowil | |||||
| niwʈar | niwnoʈar |
First and second person forms are meant as referents for 1st class entities; the endings for the tertiary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1st or the 2nd class.
The forms for the genitive case and for and the ablative case cannot convey possession or belonging, conveying only other roles of such cases. Either possession or belonging are conveyed through possessive adjectives and pronouns.
Numerals
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.
Cardinal numerals
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:
| ʂajqo | |
| qaki | |
| mikow | |
| wowhe | |
| çajwe | |
| ðujha | |
| ŕaʂä | |
| cuqe | |
| ʈobu | |
| βjeqo |
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + βjeqo + na:
| ʂajqoβjeqona | |
| qakiβjeqona | |
| mikowβjeqona | |
| wowheβjeqona | |
| çajweβjeqona | |
| ðujhaβjeqona | |
| ŕaʂäβjeqona | |
| cuqeβjeqona | |
| ʈobuβjeqona |
The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:
| ɳajśu | |
| hiqaj |
The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + βjeqośu / ɳajśuśu / hiqajśu:
| qakiβjeqośu | qakiɳajśuśu | qakihiqajśu | |
| mikowβjeqośu | mikowɳajśuśu | mikowhiqajśu | |
| wowheβjeqośu | wowheɳajśuśu | wowhehiqajśu | |
| çajweβjeqośu | çajweɳajśuśu | çajwehiqajśu | |
| ðujhaβjeqośu | ðujhaɳajśuśu | ðujhahiqajśu | |
| ŕaʂäβjeqośu | ŕaʂäɳajśuśu | ŕaʂähiqajśu | |
| cuqeβjeqośu | cuqeɳajśuśu | cuqehiqajśu | |
| ʈobuβjeqośu | ʈobuɳajśuśu | ʈobuhiqajśu |
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.
Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:
- 1985: hiqaj ʈobuɳajśuśu cuqeβjeqośu çajwe
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -ko to the cardinal numeral form:
| ʂajqoko | |
| qakiko | |
| mikowko | |
| wowheko | |
| çajweko | |
| ðujhako | |
| ŕaʂäko | |
| cuqeko | |
| ʈobuko | |
| βjeqoko | |
| ʂajqoβjeqonako | |
| qakiβjeqonako | |
| qakiβjeqośuko | |
| ðujhaβjeqośuko | |
| mikowɳajśuśuko | |
| ʈobuhiqajśuko |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25th: qakiβjeqośu çajweko
Fractional numerals
Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -wuj to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numeral one, an irregular suppletive form, and some other irregularities:
| - | |
| cujβo | |
| mikowuj | |
| wowhewuj | |
| çajwewuj | |
| ðujhawuj | |
| ŕaʂäwuj | |
| cuqewuj | |
| ʈobuwuj | |
| βjeqowuj | |
| ʂajqoβjeqonawuj | |
| qakiβjeqonawuj | |
| qakiβjeqośuwuj | |
| ðujhaβjeqośuwuj | |
| mikowɳajśuśuwuj | |
| ʈobuhiqajśuwuj |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: qakiβjeqośu çajwewuj
Distributive numerals
Distributive numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -je to the cardinal numeral form, with an irregular form:
| ʂajqoje | |
| qakije | |
| mikobje | |
| wowheje | |
| çajweje | |
| ðujhaje | |
| ŕaʂäje | |
| cuqeje | |
| ʈobuje | |
| βjeqoje | |
| ʂajqoβjeqonaje | |
| qakiβjeqonaje | |
| qakiβjeqośuje | |
| ðujhaβjeqośuje | |
| mikowɳajśuśuje | |
| ʈobuhiqajśuje |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: qakiβjeqośu çajweje
Multiplier numerals
Multiplier numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -re to the cardinal numeral form:
| ʂajqore | |
| qakire | |
| mikowre | |
| wowhere | |
| çajwere | |
| ðujhare | |
| ŕaʂäre | |
| cuqere | |
| ʈobure | |
| βjeqore | |
| ʂajqoβjeqonare | |
| qakiβjeqonare | |
| qakiβjeqośure | |
| ðujhaβjeqośure | |
| mikowɳajśuśure | |
| ʈobuhiqajśure |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: qakiβjeqośu çajwere
