Xowʂiko morphology

Main article: Xowʂiko

This page gives an extensive description of Xowʂiko morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in Xowʂiko language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ä-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or first class and inanimate nouns or second class. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:

• 1^st class: human beings, animals, deities
• 2^nd class: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions

A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.

For example, the word säɳo, sun, shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, as the noun qacow, wind, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree.

Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.

There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural.

Cases

Kī́rtako nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 9 cases:

Case	Meaning
Nominative	This case marks the subject of a verb
Accusative	This case marks the direct object of a verb. It is also used with some postpositions. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and as its citation form. It is also used as the vocative form.
Ablative	This case marks primarily a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, body parts), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging. It also marks the point of origin of a movement (motion from a place). It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb.
Genitive	This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1st class.
Dative	This case marks primarily the indirect object. It can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place), and, in a broad sense, the final purpose of an action or a state.
Causative	This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.
Instrumental	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.
Abessive	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.
Locative	This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.

The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:

1. Main cases: nominative, accusative
2. Primary oblique cases: ablative, dative, causative
3. Secondary oblique cases: genitive
4. Tertiary oblique cases: instrumental, abessive, locative

Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various prepositions, which can select one or more cases.

Noun declension

Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

	1st class		2nd class
	singular	plural	singular	plural
nominative	-li	-noli	-li	-noli
accusative	-	-no	-	-no
ablative	-ʂu	-noʂu	-ʂu	-noʂu
genitive	-ra	-nora
dative	-ŕä	-noŕä	-ŕä	-noŕä
causative	-ɣu	-noɣu	-ɣu	-noɣu
instrumental			-ɣä	-noɣä
abessive			-wil1	-nowil
locative			-ʈar	-noʈar

¹This ending changes into -il, when added to a noun ending in -w.

Some examples are shown below: a 1^st class noun, papu, father, and a 2^nd class noun, sowo, house.

	papu		sowo
	singular	plural	singular	plural
nominative	papuli	papunoli	sowoli	sowonoli
accusative	papu	papuno	sowo	sowono
ablative	papuʂu	papunošu	sowoʂu	sowonoʂu
genitive	papura	papunora
dative	papuŕä	papunoŕä	sowoŕä	sowonoŕä
causative	papuɣu	papunoɣu	sowoɣu	sowonoɣu
instrumental			sowoɣä	sowonoɣä
abessive			sowowil	sowonowil
locative			sowoʈar	sowonoʈar

As for the rules, the endings for the tertiary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1^st class noun, while the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 2^st class noun.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.

xowpajli hjyroli
(the) young man

hjyroli xowpajli qäɳ
(the) man is young

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.

xowpajra hjyrora rjeqoli sowoli piwkoʈar häciʈar mjeqis
the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Example: rjeqo, new

	rḗʔo
	singular	plural
nominative	rjeqoli	rjeqonoli
accusative	rjeqo	rjeqono
ablative	rjeqoʂu	rjeqonoʂu
genitive	rjeqora	rjeqonora
dative	rjeqoŕä	rjeqonoŕä
causative	rjeqoɣu	rjeqonoɣu
instrumental	rjeqoɣä	rjeqonoɣä
abessive	rjeqowil	rjeqonowil
locative	rjeqoʈar	rjeqonoʈar

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns are:

	1st sing.	2nd sing.	3rd sing.	1st plur.	2nd plur.	3rd plur.
nominative	xoli	näli	niwli	xonoli	nänoli	niwnoli
accusative	xo	nä	niw	xono	näno	niwno
ablative	xoʂu	näʂu	niwʂu	xonoʂu	nänoʂu	niwnoʂu
genitive	xora	nära	niwra	xonora	nänora	niwnora
dative	xoŕä	näŕä	niwŕä	xonoŕä	nänoŕä	niwnoŕä
causative	xoɣu	näɣu	niwɣu	xonoɣu	nänoɣu	niwnoɣu
instrumental			niwɣä			niwnoɣä
abessive			niwil			niwnowil
locative			niwʈar			niwnoʈar

First and second person forms are meant as referents for 1^st class entities; the endings for the tertiary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1^st or the 2^nd class.

The forms for the genitive case and for and the ablative case cannot convey possession or belonging, conveying only other roles of such cases. Either possession or belonging are conveyed through possessive adjectives and pronouns.

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).

• what: ʂä
• who: ʂaj

Both pronouns can be declined, listed here in their accusative singular forms, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.

çice ʂajŕä om qakohäker?
whom did you give water to?

However, while the animate class pronoun keeps its original meaning when declined, the inanimate class pronouns usually acquire new meanings, depending on the selected case:

• ʂäʈar: where (static location)
• ʂäŕä: where (motion toward)
• ʂäʂu: where... from (motion form)
• ʂäɣu: why (cause)

All forms can, nevertheless, keep their original meaning of “what”:

ʂäʂu loljyçika om qaqjyser?
what didn’t you see?

The various meanings of the declined forms can be usually inferred by the context of the sentence.

There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):

• ʂätujri: when
• ʂämine: how much (inanimate)
• ʂajmine: how much (animate)
• ʂämäw : how

There are also the following interrogative adjectives:

• ʂäko: which (inanimate)
• ʂajko: which (animate)
• ʂämineko: how much / many (inanimate)
• ʂajmineko: how much / many (animate)

Within an interrogative clause, pronouns usually are usually placed in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they increasingly tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be introduced by prepositions:

wuj ʂajŕä om ʈäwehuw?
whom is he talking about?

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	full form
1:	ʂajqo
2:	qaki
3:	mikow
4:	wowhe
5:	çajwe
6:	ðujha
7:	ŕaʂä
8:	cuqe
9:	ʈobu
10:	βjeqo

Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + βjeqo + na:

digit	full form
11:	ʂajqoβjeqona
12:	qakiβjeqona
13:	mikowβjeqona
14:	wowheβjeqona
15:	çajweβjeqona
16:	ðujhaβjeqona
17:	ŕaʂäβjeqona
18:	cuqeβjeqona
19:	ʈobuβjeqona

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	full form
100:	ɳajśu
1000:	hiqaj

The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + βjeqośu / ɳajśuśu / hiqajśu:

	tens	hundreds	thousands
2x:	qakiβjeqośu	qakiɳajśuśu	qakihiqajśu
3x:	mikowβjeqośu	mikowɳajśuśu	mikowhiqajśu
4x:	wowheβjeqośu	wowheɳajśuśu	wowhehiqajśu
5x:	çajweβjeqośu	çajweɳajśuśu	çajwehiqajśu
6x:	ðujhaβjeqośu	ðujhaɳajśuśu	ðujhahiqajśu
7x:	ŕaʂäβjeqośu	ŕaʂäɳajśuśu	ŕaʂähiqajśu
8x:	cuqeβjeqośu	cuqeɳajśuśu	cuqehiqajśu
9x:	ʈobuβjeqośu	ʈobuɳajśuśu	ʈobuhiqajśu

Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.

Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

• 1985: hiqaj ʈobuɳajśuśu cuqeβjeqośu çajwe

All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -ko to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	adjective form
1st:	ʂajqoko
2nd:	qakiko
3rd:	mikowko
4th:	wowheko
5th:	çajweko
6th:	ðujhako
7th:	ŕaʂäko
8th:	cuqeko
9th:	ʈobuko
10th:	βjeqoko
11th:	ʂajqoβjeqonako
12th:	qakiβjeqonako
20th:	qakiβjeqośuko
60th:	ðujhaβjeqośuko
300th:	mikowɳajśuśuko
9000th:	ʈobuhiqajśuko

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25^th: qakiβjeqośu çajweko

Fractional numerals

Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -wuj to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numeral one, an irregular suppletive form, and some other irregularities:

digit	full form
1:	-
2:	cujβo
3:	mikowuj
4:	wowhewuj
5:	çajwewuj
6:	ðujhawuj
7:	ŕaʂäwuj
8:	cuqewuj
9:	ʈobuwuj
10:	βjeqowuj
11:	ʂajqoβjeqonawuj
12:	qakiβjeqonawuj
20:	qakiβjeqośuwuj
60:	ðujhaβjeqośuwuj
300:	mikowɳajśuśuwuj
9000:	ʈobuhiqajśuwuj

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: qakiβjeqośu çajwewuj

Distributive numerals

Distributive numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -je to the cardinal numeral form, with an irregular form:

digit	full form
1:	ʂajqoje
2:	qakije
3:	mikobje
4:	wowheje
5:	çajweje
6:	ðujhaje
7:	ŕaʂäje
8:	cuqeje
9:	ʈobuje
10:	βjeqoje
11:	ʂajqoβjeqonaje
12:	qakiβjeqonaje
20:	qakiβjeqośuje
60:	ðujhaβjeqośuje
300:	mikowɳajśuśuje
9000:	ʈobuhiqajśuje

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: qakiβjeqośu çajweje

Multiplier numerals

Multiplier numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -re to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	full form
1:	ʂajqore
2:	qakire
3:	mikowre
4:	wowhere
5:	çajwere
6:	ðujhare
7:	ŕaʂäre
8:	cuqere
9:	ʈobure
10:	βjeqore
11:	ʂajqoβjeqonare
12:	qakiβjeqonare
20:	qakiβjeqośure
60:	ðujhaβjeqośure
300:	mikowɳajśuśure
9000:	ʈobuhiqajśure

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: qakiβjeqośu çajwere

Verbs

The verbal system of Xowʂiko language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = wawok- → Rprf = wowak-

In addition to vowels, diphthongs can also be switched:

Rimp = hjeqak- → Rprf = haqjek-

Rising diphthongs -je- and -jy- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:

Rimp = žemon- → Rprf = ŕomjen-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

Rimp = wäqimjeŕ- → Rprf = wäqjemiŕ-

Rimp = ʈäwehowr- → Rprf = ʈewähowr-

Rimp = ŕäʈäwehek- → Rprf = ŕäʈewähek-

Monosyllabic roots, like qäɳ-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective). This rule may apply to some loanwords.

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix qa-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.

Rimp = wawok- → Rimp-past = qawawok-

There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional
• Non-finite: infinitive, active participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ika, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.	-oh
2nd sing.	-er
3rd sing.	-
1st plur.	-onoh
2nd plur.	-oner
3rd plur.	-on

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -iɳ-
• conditional: -oç-

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• infinitive: -ika
• agentive participle: -jyto
• passive participle: -uki

The infinitival form is meant as a 2^nd class noun.

There is, moreover, a passive diathesis with an analytic-type construction, formed by the ver qäɳika, to be, as an auxiliary verb, and the passive participle. It conveys the same modal, aspectual and temporal forms as the active diathesis.

Conjugation of a regular verb

Example: śośirika, to take

Active diathesis

Indicative mood

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	śośiroh	qaśośiroh	śiśoroh	qaśiśoroh
2nd sing.	śośirer	qaśośirer	śiśorer	qaśiśorer
3rd sing.	śośir	qaśośir	śiśor	qaśiśor
1st plur.	śośironoh	qaśośironoh	śiśoronoh	qaśiśoronoh
2nd plur.	śośironer	qaśośironer	śiśoroner	qaśiśoroner
3rd plur.	śośiron	qaśośiron	śiśoron	qaśiśoron

The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive widely features the infix -iɳ-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	śośiriɳoh	qaśośiriɳoh	śiśoriɳoh	qaśiśoriɳoh
2nd sing.	śośiriɳer	qaśośiriɳer	śiśoriɳer	qaśiśoriɳer
3rd sing.	śośiriɳ	qaśośiriɳ	śiśoriɳ	qaśiśoriɳ
1st plur.	śośiriɳonoh	qaśośiriɳonoh	śiśoriɳonoh	qaśiśoriɳonoh
2nd plur.	śośiriɳoner	qaśośiriɳoner	śiśoriɳoner	qaśiśoriɳoner
3rd plur.	śośiriɳon	qaśośiriɳon	śiśoriɳon	qaśiśoriɳon

The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.

Conditional mood

The conditional widely features the infix -oç-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	śośiroçoh	qaśośiroçoh	śiśoroçoh	qaśiśoroçoh
2nd sing.	śośiroçer	qaśośiroçer	śiśoroçer	qaśiśoroçer
3rd sing.	śośiroç	qaśośiroç	śiśoroç	qaśiśoroç
1st plur.	śośiroçonoh	qaśośiroçonoh	śiśoroçonoh	qaśiśoroçonoh
2nd plur.	śośiroçoner	qaśośiroçoner	śiśoroçoner	qaśiśoroçoner
3rd plur.	śośiroçon	qaśośiroçon	śiśoroçon	qaśiśoroçon

The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.

For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).

Non-finite forms

The non-finite verbal forms are:

Infinitive

	indicative	subjunctive	conditional
imp. pres.	śośirika	śośiriɳika	śośiroçika
imp. past	qaśośirika	qaśośiriɳika	qaśośiroçika
imp. pres.	śiśorika	śiśoriɳika	śiśoroçika
imp. past	qaśiśorika	qaśiśoriɳika	qaśiśoroçika

The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as a 2^nd class noun.

In its subjunctive form it is often used in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.

Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ablative case.

Active participle

	indicative	subjunctive	conditional
imp. pres.	śośirjyto	śośiriňyto	śośiročyto
imp. past	qaśośirjyto	qaśośiriňyto	qaśośiročyto
imp. pres.	śiśorjyto	śiśoriňyto	śiśoročyto
imp. past	qaśiśorjyto	qaśiśoriňyto	qaśiśoročyto

The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action.

All modal infixes merge with the active participle ending:

• -iɳ- + -jyto = -iňyto
• -oç- + -jyto = -očyto

It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ablative case:

qownaʂu qaloljyçočytoli hjyroli
the man which might have seen the woman

As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.

Passive participle

	indicative	subjunctive	conditional
imp. pres.	śośiruki	śośiriɳuki	śośiroçuki
imp. past	qaśośiruki	qaśośiriɳuki	qaśośiroçuki
imp. pres.	śiśoruki	śiśoriɳuki	śiśoroçuki
imp. past	qaśiśoruki	qaśiśoriɳuki	qaśiśoroçuki

The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.

It is often used as an adjective and to build relative clauses:

xäl qownaʂu qaloljyçukili hjyroli
the man seen by the woman

It is also largely used in the verbal conjugation, in the construction of the passive diathesis forms.

As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.

Passive diathesis

The passive diathesis displays only compound forms, in every mood and tense. These forms are always built through the auxiliary verb qäɳika, to be with the various forms of the passive participle.

The usage of the different moods and tenses is exactly the same as the active diathesis. Notably, modal forms are conveyed by the auxiliary verb, while the aspectual and temporal forms are conveyed only by the participles.

Moreover, the passive participle does not agree in case with the subject of the sentence, keeping the accusative form. Conversely, it agrees with the subject only in number.

Examples:

çonunoli çiçacukino qäɳon
the fields will be cultivated

Indicative mood

Tense	Construction
imperfective present	imperfective present passive participle + indicative present forms of qäɳika
imperfective past	imperfective past passive participle + indicative present forms of qäɳika
perfective present	perfective present passive participle + indicative present forms of qäɳika
perfective past	perfective past passive participle + indicative present forms of qäɳika

Examples (for each tense only the 1^st person singular form is shown):

Tense	Example
imperfective present	śośiruki qäɳoh, ...
imperfective past	qaśośiruki qäɳoh, ...
imperfective present	śiśoruki qäɳoh, ...
imperfective past	qaśiśoruki qäɳoh, ...

Subjunctive mood

Tense	Construction
imperfective present	imperfective present passive participle + subjunctive present forms of qäɳika
imperfective past	imperfective past passive participle + subjunctive present forms of qäɳika
perfective present	perfective present passive participle + subjunctive present forms of qäɳika
perfective past	perfective past passive participle + subjunctive present forms of qäɳika

Examples (for each tense only the 1^st person singular form is shown):

Tense	Example
imperfective present	śośiruki qäɳiɳoh, ...
imperfective past	qaśośiruki qäɳiɳoh, ...
imperfective present	śiśoruki qäɳiɳoh, ...
imperfective past	qaśiśoruki qäɳiɳoh, ...

Conditional mood

Tense	Construction
imperfective present	imperfective present passive participle + conditional present forms of qäɳika
imperfective past	imperfective past passive participle + conditional present forms of qäɳika
perfective present	perfective present passive participle + conditional present forms of qäɳika
perfective past	perfective past passive participle + conditional present forms of qäɳika

Examples (for each tense only the 1^st person singular form is shown):

Tense	Example
imperfective present	śośiruki qäɳoçoh, ...
imperfective past	qaśośiruki qäɳoçoh, ...
imperfective present	śiśoruki qäɳoçoh, ...
imperfective past	qaśiśoruki qäɳoçoh, ...

Infinitive mood

Tense	Construction
imperfective present	imperfective present passive participle + infinitive forms of qäɳika
imperfective past	imperfective past passive participle + infinitive forms of qäɳika
perfective present	perfective present passive participle + infinitive forms of qäɳika
perfective past	perfective past passive participle + infinitive forms of qäɳika

Examples:

Tense	Example
imperfective present	śośiruki qäɳika
imperfective past	qaśośiruki qäɳika
imperfective present	śiśoruki qäɳika
imperfective past	qaśiśoruki qäɳika

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb qjysika. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.

Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the indicative infinitival form of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ablative case.

sopali hjyro qaňymac → sopali hjyroʂu ňymacika qaqjys
the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man

sopali ʎehon → sopali ʎehonika qjys
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.