Ancient Figo morphology

Main article: Ancient Figo

This page gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:

• class I: human beings, animals, deities
• class II: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions

A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, wind, which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, water, which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.

Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.

There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular, dual, and plural.

The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):

sobanu līločow
I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)

sobaj līločow
I see two dogs (it cannot be any other number)

In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, two, is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.

ogi sobaj līločow
I see two dogs (the amount of two is purposedly highlighted)

The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, eye.

Cases

Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 7 cases:

Case	Meaning
Agentive	This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.
Passive	This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Genitive	This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.
Dative	This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place).
Causative	This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.
Instrumental	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.
Locative	This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.

The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:

1. Primary main cases: agentive
2. Secondary main cases: passive, ablative
3. Primary oblique cases: dative, causative
4. Secondary oblique cases: instrumental, locative

Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various postpositions, which can select one or more cases.

Noun declension

Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

	class I			class II
	singular	dual	plural	singular	dual	plural
agentive	-li	-lī	-linu
passive	-	-j1	-nu	-	-j1	-nu
genitive	-ɕu	-ɕuj	-ɕunu	-ɕu	-ɕuj	-ɕunu
dative	-he	-hej	-henu	-he	-hej	-henu
causative	-xu	-xuj	-xunu	-xu	-xuj	-xunu
instrumental				-xe	-xej	-xenu
locative				-car	-cari	-carnu

¹ If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.

Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, father, and a class II noun, sōnu, house.

	pobu			sōnu
	singular	dual	plural	singular	dual	plural
agentive	pobuli	pobulī	pobulinu
passive	pobu	pobuj	pobunu	sōnu	sōnuj	sōnunu
genitive	pobuɕu	pobuɕuj	pobuɕunu	sōnuɕu	sōnuɕuj	sōnuɕunu
dative	pobuhe	pobuhej	pobuhenu	sōnuhe	sōnuhej	sōnuhenu
causative	pobuxu	pobuxuj	pobuxunu	sōnuxu	sōnuxuj	sōnuxunu
instrumental				sōnuxe	sōnuxej	sōnuxenu
locative				sōnucar	sōnucari	sōnucarnu

As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.

In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:

pass. čiš → gen. čišəɕu, dat. čišəhe, ...

Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.

pass. sōnu → gen. sōnoɕu, dat. sōnohe, ...

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.

jōbā līru
(the) young man

līru jōbā ɛneš
(the) man is young

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.

jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš
the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Example: jōbā, young

	singular	dual	plural
agentive	jōbāli	jōbālī	jōbālinu
passive	jōbā	jōbāj	jōbānu
genitive	jōbāɕu	jōbāɕuj	jōbāɕunu
dative	jōbāhe	jōbāhej	jōbāhenu
causative	jōbāxu	jōbāxuj	jōbāxunu
instrumental	jōbāxe	jōbāxej	jōbāxenu
locative	jōbācar	jōbācari	jōbācarnu

The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:

pass. rēw, new → ag. rēwəli, gen. rēwəɕu, dat. rēwəhe, ...

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
1:	ɕōw
2:	ogi
3:	migō
4:	nōh
5:	čōn
6:	θūha
7:	hoɕe
8:	šu
9:	cōju
10:	fēw

Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw:

digit	noun form
11:	ɕōwfēw
12:	ogifēw
13:	migōfēw
14:	nōhfēw
15:	čonfēw
16:	θūhafēw
17:	hoɕefēw
18:	šufēw
19:	cōjufēw

Some of these numerals have an alternative form:

digit	noun form
14:	nōhəfēw
15:	čonəfēw

These form are limitedly used only in texts in the pre-classic period, and they are completely obsolete in the classic period.

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
100:	ňōšu
1000:	liā

The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu, with some irregularities:

	tens	hundreds	thousands
2x:	ogifēwtuj	ogiňōšuj	ogiliāj
3x:	migōfēwtunu	migōňōšunu	migōliānu
4x:	nōhfēwtunu	nōhəňōšunu	nōhliānu
5x:	čonfēwtunu	čonəňōšunu	čonliānu
6x:	θūhafēwtunu	θūhaňōšunu	θūhaliānu
7x:	hoɕefēwtunu	hoɕeňōšunu	hoɕeliānu
8x:	šufēwtunu	šuňōšunu	šuliānu
9x:	cōjufēwtunu	cōjuňōšunu	cōjuliānu

Some of these numerals have an alternative form:

	tens	thousands
4x:	nōhəfēwtunu	nōhəliānu
5x:	čonəfēwtunu	čonəliānu

These form are limitedly used only in texts in the pre-classic period, and they are completely obsolete in the classic period.

Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.

Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

• 1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon

All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.

Every cardinal number may display, moreover, a special form. This form is to be used strictly when referring to human beings. This numerals are built by adding the derivative ending -fū to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	noun form
1:	ɕōwfū
2:	ogifū
3:	migōfū
4:	nōhfū
5:	čōnfō
6:	θūhafū
7:	hoɕefū
8:	šufū
9:	cōjufū
10:	fēwfū
11:	ɕōwfēwfū
12:	ogifēwfū
20:	ogifēwtujfū
60:	θūhafēwtunufū

Some of these numerals have an alternative form:

digit	noun form
4:	nōhəfū
5:	čonəfū

These form are limitedly used only in texts in the pre-classic period, and they are completely obsolete in the classic period.

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: ogifēwtuj čonfū

This form is called personal numeral, and it can be treated either as an adjectival or a pronominal form.

In adjectival form they agree in case and number with their adjoining name. They thus display a complete I class declension, as they can only specify a I class noun.

migōfūnu līrunu alolīčohon
we saw three men

In pronominal form they decline only in singular number. They thus display a singular I class declension, as they can refer to a I class noun.

migōfū alolīčohon
we saw three (of them)

In their pronominal forms, however, these numerals can be adjoined by a noun. This is built with a peculiar construction. The personal numerals are declined in the singular, while the adjoining numbers are always declined in the genitive plural form. If present, the verb always agrees with the personal numeral in the singular number.

migōfū līrunuɕu alolīčohon
we saw three men

migōfūli līrunuɕu junu alolīčeš
three men saw us

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -du to the cardinal numeral form, with an irregular suppletive form:

digit	adjective form
1st:	roɕdu
2nd:	ogidu
3rd:	migōdu
4th:	nōhdu
5th:	čōndu
6th:	θūhadu
7th:	hoɕedu
8th:	šudu
9th:	cōjudu
10th:	fēwdu
11th:	ɕōwfēwdu
12th:	ogifēwdu
20th:	ogifēwtujdu
60th:	θūhafēwtunudu

Some of these numerals have an alternative form:

digit	noun form
4th:	nōhədu
5th:	čonədu

These form are limitedly used only in texts in the pre-classic period, and they are completely obsolete in the classic period.

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25^th: ogifēwtuj čondu

Fractional numerals

Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -nū to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numeral one, and an irregular suppletive form:

digit	full form
1:	-
2:	šūfu
3:	migōnū
4:	nōhənū
5:	čōnənū
6:	θūhanū
7:	hoɕenū
8:	šunū
9:	cōjunū
10:	fēwnū
11:	ɕōwfēwnū
12:	ogifēwnū
20:	ogifēwtujnū
60:	θūhafēwtununū

One fractional numeral has an alternative form:

4:

nōhnū

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: ogifēwtuj čōnənū

Multiplier numerals

Multiplier numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -r (-ə-) to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	full form
1:	ɕōwr
2:	ogir
3:	migōr
4:	nōhər
5:	čōnər
6:	θūhar
7:	hoɕer
8:	šur
9:	cōjur
10:	fēwr
11:	ɕōwfēwr
12:	ogifēwr
20:	ogifēwtujr
60:	θūhafēwtunur

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: ogifēwtuj čōnər

Verbs

The verbal system of ancient Figo language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between two verbal roots, the present root and the preterite root. The basic root is usually the present one, while the preterite root is usually derived from the present one through an introflexive process of vowel switching, and by by means of the prefix a-, known as augment,:

CV1CV2C → aCV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = sōsun- → Rprf = asusōn-

There are three verbal moods and four non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, potential
• Non-finite: primary infinitive, secondary infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -em, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the present root can be inferred and can be changed in its preterite equivalent.

On the verbal roots six verbal tense are formed:

• present
• preterite
• perfect
• plusquamperfect
• future
• anterior future

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.	-ow
2nd sing.	-ər
3rd sing.	-eš
	-
1st dual	-ohi
2nd dual	-əri
3rd dual	-eši
	-i
1st plur.	-ohon
2nd plur.	-əron
3rd plur.	-ešon
	-on

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -oč-
• potential: -eč-

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• primary infinitive: -em
• secondary infinitive: -iga
• agentive participle: -īdu
• passive participle: -ugi-

The infinitival form is meant as a class II noun.