Ancient Figo morphology
- Main article: Ancient Figo
This page gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.
Nouns
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:
- class I: human beings, animals, deities
- class II: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, wind, which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, water, which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular, dual, and plural.
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):
sobanu līločow I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)
sobaj līločow I see two dogs (it cannot be any other number)
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, two, is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.
ogi sobaj līločow I see two dogs (the amount of two is purposedly highlighted)
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, eye.
Cases
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 7 cases:
| Agentive | This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I. |
| Passive | This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form. |
| Genitive | This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source. |
| Dative | This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place). |
| Causative | This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state. |
| Instrumental | This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II. |
| Locative | This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II. |
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:
- Primary main cases: agentive
- Secondary main cases: passive, ablative
- Primary oblique cases: dative, causative
- Secondary oblique cases: instrumental, locative
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various postpositions, which can select one or more cases.
Noun declension
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:
| -li | -lī | -linu | ||||
| - | -j1 | -nu | - | -j1 | -nu | |
| -ɕu | -ɕuj | -ɕunu | -ɕu | -ɕuj | -ɕunu | |
| -he | -hej | -henu | -he | -hej | -henu | |
| -xu | -xuj | -xunu | -xu | -xuj | -xunu | |
| -xe | -xej | -xenu | ||||
| -car | -cari | -carnu | ||||
1 If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, father, and a class II noun, sōnu, house.
| pobuli | pobulī | pobulinu | ||||
| pobu | pobuj | pobunu | sōnu | sōnuj | sōnunu | |
| pobuɕu | pobuɕuj | pobuɕunu | sōnuɕu | sōnuɕuj | sōnuɕunu | |
| pobuhe | pobuhej | pobuhenu | sōnuhe | sōnuhej | sōnuhenu | |
| pobuxu | pobuxuj | pobuxunu | sōnuxu | sōnuxuj | sōnuxunu | |
| sōnuxe | sōnuxej | sōnuxenu | ||||
| sōnucar | sōnucari | sōnucarnu | ||||
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:
pass. čiš → gen. čišəɕu, dat. čišəhe, ...
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.
pass. sōnu → gen. sōnoɕu, dat. sōnohe, ...
Adjectives and pronouns
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.
Adjectives
Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.
jōbā līru (the) young man
līru jōbā ɛneš (the) man is young
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village
Declension of qualifying adjectives
Example: jōbā, young
| jōbāli | jōbālī | jōbālinu | |
| jōbā | jōbāj | jōbānu | |
| jōbāɕu | jōbāɕuj | jōbāɕunu | |
| jōbāhe | jōbāhej | jōbāhenu | |
| jōbāxu | jōbāxuj | jōbāxunu | |
| jōbāxe | jōbāxej | jōbāxenu | |
| jōbācar | jōbācari | jōbācarnu |
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:
pass. rēw, new → ag. rēwəli, gen. rēwəɕu, dat. rēwəhe, ...
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case are created on both roots.
| oltu | ertu | ɛštu | oltuj | ertuj | ɛštuj | oltunu | ertunu | ɛštunu | |
| ju | nɛ | šɛ | joj | nɛj | šɛj | junu | nɛnu | šɛnu | |
| oltuɕu | ertuɕu | ɛštuɕu | oltuɕuj | ertuɕuj | ɛštuɕuj | oltuɕunu | ertuɕunu | ɛštuɕunu | |
| joɕu | nɛɕu | šɛɕu | juɕuj | nɛɕuj | šɛɕuj | juɕunu | nɛɕunu | šɛɕunu | |
| oltuhe | ertuhe | ɛštuhe | oltuhej | ertuhej | ɛštuhej | oltuhenu | ertuhenu | ɛštuhenu | |
| johe | nɛhe | šɛhe | juhej | nɛhej | šɛhej | juhenu | nɛhenu | šɛhenu | |
| oltuxu | ertuxu | ɛštuxu | oltuxuj | ertuxuj | ɛštuxuj | oltuxunu | ertuxunu | ɛštuxunu | |
| ɛštuxe | ɛštuxej | ɛštuxenu | |||||||
| ɛštucar | ɛštucari | ɛštucarnu |
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between long forms (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and short forms (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:
- In the genitive case:
- Long form: it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon we saw your house
- Short form: it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow I wasn’t looking for you
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon I will come with you
- In the dative case:
- Long form: it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon I am talking about them
- Short form: it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.
šɛhe hēme agohegow I gave him bread
1st and 2nd person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow I am falling
Interrogative pronouns
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).
- what: ɕɛ
- who: ɕō
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.
ɕōhe čiš agohegər? whom did you give water to?
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):
- ɕɛducar: where (static location)
- ɕɛduhe: where (motion toward)
- ɕɛduɕu: where... from (motion form)
- ɕɛduxu: why (cause)
- ɕɛlēdu: when
- ɕɛmin: how much (inanimate)
- ɕōmin: how much (animate)
- ɕɛmen: how
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:
- ɕɛgu: which (animate)
- ɕōgu: which (animate)
- ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (animate)
- ɕōminəxu: how much / many (animate)
Within an interrogative clause, pronouns usually are usually placed in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš? whom are you talking about?
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.
Numerals
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.
Cardinal numerals
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:
| ɕōw | |
| ogi | |
| migō | |
| nōh | |
| čōn | |
| θūha | |
| hoɕe | |
| šu | |
| cōju | |
| fēw |
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw:
| ɕōwfēw | |
| ogifēw | |
| migōfēw | |
| nōhfēw | |
| čonfēw | |
| θūhafēw | |
| hoɕefēw | |
| šufēw | |
| cōjufēw |
Some of these numerals have an alternative form:
| nōhəfēw | |
| čonəfēw |
These form are limitedly used only in texts in the pre-classic period, and they are completely obsolete in the classic period.
The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:
| ňōšu | |
| liā |
The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu, with some irregularities:
| ogifēwtuj | ogiňōšuj | ogiliāj | |
| migōfēwtunu | migōňōšunu | migōliānu | |
| nōhfēwtunu | nōhəňōšunu | nōhliānu | |
| čonfēwtunu | čonəňōšunu | čonliānu | |
| θūhafēwtunu | θūhaňōšunu | θūhaliānu | |
| hoɕefēwtunu | hoɕeňōšunu | hoɕeliānu | |
| šufēwtunu | šuňōšunu | šuliānu | |
| cōjufēwtunu | cōjuňōšunu | cōjuliānu |
Some of these numerals have an alternative form:
| nōhəfēwtunu | nōhəliānu | |
| čonəfēwtunu | čonəliānu |
These form are limitedly used only in texts in the pre-classic period, and they are completely obsolete in the classic period.
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.
Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:
- 1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.
Every cardinal number may display, moreover, a special form. This form is to be used strictly when referring to human beings. This numerals are built by adding the derivative ending -fū to the cardinal numeral form:
| ɕōwfū | |
| ogifū | |
| migōfū | |
| nōhfū | |
| čōnfō | |
| θūhafū | |
| hoɕefū | |
| šufū | |
| cōjufū | |
| fēwfū | |
| ɕōwfēwfū | |
| ogifēwfū | |
| ogifēwtujfū | |
| θūhafēwtunufū |
Some of these numerals have an alternative form:
| nōhəfū | |
| čonəfū |
These form are limitedly used only in texts in the pre-classic period, and they are completely obsolete in the classic period.
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: ogifēwtuj čonfū
This form is called personal numeral, and it can be treated either as an adjectival or a pronominal form.
In adjectival form they agree in case and number with their adjoining name. They thus display a complete I class declension, as they can only specify a I class noun.
migōfūnu līrunu alolīčohon we saw three men
In pronominal form they decline only in singular number. They thus display a singular I class declension, as they can refer to a I class noun.
migōfū alolīčohon we saw three (of them)
In their pronominal forms, however, these numerals can be adjoined by a noun. This is built with a peculiar construction. The personal numerals are declined in the singular, while the adjoining numbers are always declined in the genitive plural form. If present, the verb always agrees with the personal numeral in the singular number.
migōfū līrunuɕu alolīčohon we saw three men
migōfūli līrunuɕu junu alolīčeš three men saw us
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -du to the cardinal numeral form, with an irregular suppletive form:
| roɕdu | |
| ogidu | |
| migōdu | |
| nōhdu | |
| čōndu | |
| θūhadu | |
| hoɕedu | |
| šudu | |
| cōjudu | |
| fēwdu | |
| ɕōwfēwdu | |
| ogifēwdu | |
| ogifēwtujdu | |
| θūhafēwtunudu |
Some of these numerals have an alternative form:
| nōhədu | |
| čonədu |
These form are limitedly used only in texts in the pre-classic period, and they are completely obsolete in the classic period.
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25th: ogifēwtuj čondu
Fractional numerals
Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -nū to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numeral one, and an irregular suppletive form:
| - | |
| šūfu | |
| migōnū | |
| nōhənū | |
| čōnənū | |
| θūhanū | |
| hoɕenū | |
| šunū | |
| cōjunū | |
| fēwnū | |
| ɕōwfēwnū | |
| ogifēwnū | |
| ogifēwtujnū | |
| θūhafēwtununū |
One fractional numeral has an alternative form:
| nōhnū |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: ogifēwtuj čōnənū
Multiplier numerals
Multiplier numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -r (-ə-) to the cardinal numeral form:
| ɕōwr | |
| ogir | |
| migōr | |
| nōhər | |
| čōnər | |
| θūhar | |
| hoɕer | |
| šur | |
| cōjur | |
| fēwr | |
| ɕōwfēwr | |
| ogifēwr | |
| ogifēwtujr | |
| θūhafēwtunur |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: ogifēwtuj čōnər
Verbs
The verbal system of ancient Figo language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between two verbal roots, the present root and the preterite root. The basic root is usually the present one, while the preterite root is usually derived from the present one through an introflexive process of vowel switching, and by means of the prefix a-, known as augment:
CV1CV2C → aCV2CV1C
Example:
Rimp = sōsun- → Rprf = asusōn-
There are three verbal moods and four non-finite forms:
- Moods: indicative, subjunctive, potential
- Non-finite: primary infinitive, secondary infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -em, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the present root can be inferred and can be changed in its preterite equivalent.
On the verbal roots six verbal tense are formed:
- present
- preterite
- perfect
- plusquamperfect
- future
- anterior future
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st dual | |
| 2nd dual | |
| 3rd dual | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. | |
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
- indicative: Ø
- subjunctive: -oč-
- potential: -eč-
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.
The non-finite endings are:
- primary infinitive: -em
- secondary infinitive: -iga
- agentive participle: -īdu
- passive participle: -ugi-
The infinitival form is meant as a class II noun.
Conjugation of a regular verb
Sample verb: sōsunem, to confuse
Indicative mood
Present tense
The present is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the present root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st dual | |
| 2nd dual | |
| 3rd dual | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. | |
In the short form of the 3rd singular person, which features the null ending, irregularities may often occur, like an alteration of the last root consonant:
uligem → ulik to die → he/she/it dies
The present tense conveys ongoing, habitual or gnomic actions or states.
Preterite tense
The preterite is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the preterite root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st dual | |
| 2nd dual | |
| 3rd dual | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. | |
In the short form of the 3rd singular person, which features the null ending, irregularities may often occur, like an alteration of the last root consonant (basically the same alteration as in the present tense):
uligem → eluk to die → he/she/it died
The preterite tense conveys completed, ongoing or habitual actions or states in the past, without any influence on the present.
Perfect tense
The perfect is a simple tense. The infix -ag- and the personal endings are added to the present root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st dual | |
| 2nd dual | |
| 3rd dual | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. | |
The perfect tense conveys actions or states which have taken place in the past, but which still can have an influence on the present. It also may convey an action or a state which have begun in the past but it is still ongoing in the present.
Plusquamperfect tense
The plusquamperfect is a compound tense. The infix -ag- and the personal endings are added to the past root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st dual | |
| 2nd dual | |
| 3rd dual | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. | |
The plusquamperfect tense conveys actions or states which had taken place before another past action or state, but which still had an influence on that time. It also may convey an action or a state which had begun in the past but it is still ongoing during another past action or state.
Future tense
The future is a compound tense. It is built with the present secondary infinitive of the conjugated verb and the indicative present forms of the verb imēhem, to go:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st dual | |
| 2nd dual | |
| 3rd dual | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. | |
The future tense conveys actions or states which will be completed, habitual or ongoing in the future.
Anterior future tense
The anterior future is a compound tense. It is built with the preterite secondary infinitive of the conjugated verb and the indicative present forms of the verb imēhem, to go:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st dual | |
| 2nd dual | |
| 3rd dual | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. | |
The anterior future tense conveys actions or states which will take place before another future action or state, but which will still have an influence on that time. It also may convey an action or a state which will begin in the past of a future moment but it will be still ongoing during another future action or state.
Subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood is mostly used in dependent clauses, with several usages. Its usage in main clauses is quite limited, except for its role as an imperative form. It can also convey exhortation, desire, and wish.
The subjunctive widely features the infix -oč-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings. In the perfect and plusquamperfect tenses, it is added before the infix -ag-. However, the subjunctive lacks both future and anterior future tenses, replaced by their indicative counterparts.
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
Potential mood
The potential mood is used to convey potentiality and probability. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses. In a figurative sense it may convey doubt and uncertainty.
The potential widely features the infix -eč-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings. In the perfect and plusquamperfect tenses, it is added before the infix -ag-. However, the subjunctive lacks both future and anterior future tenses, replaced by their indicative counterparts.
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
Non-finite forms
The non-finite verbal forms are:
Infinitive
There are two infinitival forms, the primary infinitive, which is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and the secondary infinitive. Both infinitives have a present and a past form, respectively built on the present root and on the preterite root.
The primary infinitive is formed through the ending -em, while the secondary infinitive through the ending -iga.
| primary | ||
| secondary |
Both infinitives are nominal forms of a verb. They can be used as such in sentences and they can be declined. They are regarded as class II nouns.
They have different usages:
- The primary infinitive is mostly used in main clauses as a verbal noun, with modal verbs or with the negative verb īsem.
- The secondary infinitive is mostly used in dependent clauses, or in the verbal conjugation for the formation of the future tenses.
Their usage as a pure nominal form as quite limited.
Participle
There are two participial forms, the agentive participle and the passive participle. Both participles have a present and a past form, respectively built on the present root and on the preterite root.
The agentive participle is formed through the ending -īdu, while the passive participle through the ending -ugi. They have a present and a past form, this last formed through the augment.
| agentive | ||
| passive |
The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. It is often used to build relative clauses. As an adjectival form it thus displays a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes, but agreeing with its adjoining noun.
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses.
Negation
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb īsem, whose preterite root is ēs-. In the 3rd persons, only the short forms are used.
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the primary infinitive of the negated verb as direct object. The different tenses are conveyed by the combinations of the negative verb and the infinitival forms, according to the following patterns:
- present: present primary infinitive + present forms of īsem
- preterite: present primary infinitive + preterite forms of īsem
- perfect: preterite primary infinitive + present forms of īsem
- plusquamperfect: preterite primary infinitive + preterite forms of īsem
- future: present secondary infinitive + imēhem + present forms of īsem
- anterior future: present secondary infinitive + ēmihem + present forms of īsem
These rules do apply in every verbal mood. The moods are conveyed by the negative verb īsem.
sobali līru aňīmašeš → sobali līru ňomīšem ēs the dog bit the man → The dog didn't bite the man
In classical texts, double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb. In the texts of the later period double negatives are increasingly common and accepted.
