User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII

Verbs

The verbal system of Biwdiw language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = gɛgug- → Rprf = gugɛg-

In addition to vowels, the diphthongs -jɛ-, -ju- and -iw- can be switched:

Rimp = čiwgul- → Rprf = čugiwl-

Rising diphthongs -jɛ- and -ju- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:

Rimp = cɛgil- → Rprf = ʈigjɛl-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

Rimp = hūgāsus- → Rprf = hūgusās-

Rimp = ʂēhiwšōr- → Rprf = ʂiwhēšōr-

Rimp = xjɛcɛgilig- → Rprf = xjɛʈigjɛlig-

Monosyllabic roots, like çɛň-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective). This rule may apply to some loanwords.

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix hɛ-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.

Rimp = gɛgug- → Rimp-past = hɛgɛgug-

There are also three analytic verbal forms, compound tenses with the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, and an infinitival form: an imperfective future, a perfect resultative and a plusquamperfect resultative.

There are four verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, optative, potential
• Non-finite: infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -iwgɛ, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.	-oh
2nd sing.	-er
3rd sing.	-
1st plur.	-onoh
2nd plur.	-oner
3rd plur.	-on

In the 3^rd singular person, one of the endings displays two possible forms, -jɛc or -^jɛc. After some consonants this ending appears as -ɛc, and palatalizes the previous consonant, or it is added to an already palatalized consonant without further effects.

cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎɛc
to say → he/she/it says

lilušiwgɛ → lilušɛc
to see → he/she/it sees

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -iwň-
• optative: -uš-
• potential: -jɛʈ- / -^jɛʈ-

The potential mood infix displays the same irregularities as the 3^rd singular person ending and it follows the same rules. All modal infixes merge with the 3^rd singular person ending:

• -iwň- + -jɛc = -iwňɛc
• -uš- + -jɛc = -ušɛc
• -jɛʈ- + -jɛc = -jɛcɛc

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• infinitive: -iwgɛ
• agentive participle: -īdu
• passive participle: -jugiw- / -^jugiw-

The passive participle ending displays the same irregularities as the 3^rd singular person ending and it follows the same rules.

The infinitival form is meant as a class II noun.

Conjugation of a regular verb

Example: gɛgugiwgɛ, to bring

Indicative mood

Four tenses are simple:

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	gɛgugū	hɛgɛgugū	gugɛgū	hɛgugɛgū
2nd sing.	gɛgugir	hɛgɛgugir	gugɛgir	hɛgugɛgir
3rd sing.	gɛgugjɛc1	hɛgɛgugjɛc1	gugɛgjɛc1	hɛgugɛgjɛc1
	gɛgug2	hɛgɛgug2	gugɛg2	hɛgugɛg2
1st dual	gɛgugiwhū	hɛgɛgugiwhū	gugɛgiwhū	hɛgugɛgiwhū
2nd dual	gɛgugiwhir	hɛgɛgugiwhir	gugɛgiwhir	hɛgugɛgiwhir
3rd dual	gɛgugiwcɛc	hɛgɛgugiwcɛc	gugɛgiwcɛc	hɛgugɛgiwcɛc
	gɛgugiwh	hɛgɛgugiwh	gugɛgiwh	hɛgugɛgiwh
1st plur.	gɛgugunū	hɛgɛgugunū	gugɛgunū	hɛgugɛgunū
2nd plur.	gɛgugunir	hɛgɛgugunir	gugɛgunir	hɛgugɛgunir
3rd plur.	gɛgugunjɛc	hɛgɛgugunjɛc	gugɛgunjɛc	hɛgugɛgunjɛc
	gɛgugun	hɛgɛgugun	gugɛgun	hɛgugɛgun

• ¹ this form tends to display irregularities in several verbs:

cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎɛc
to say → he/she/it says

lilušiwgɛ → lilušɛc
to see → he/she/it sees

• ² this form tends to display irregularities in several verbs:

čiwguliwgɛ → čiwgū
to come → he/she/it comes

There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:

• Imperfective future: forms of the indicative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative present: forms of the indicative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative past: forms of the indicative past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.

	imperfective future	resultative present	resultative past
1st sing.	çɛňū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd sing.	çɛňir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd sing.	çɛňɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛň gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st dual	çɛňiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd dual	çeňiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd dual	çɛňiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çeňiwh gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st plur.	çɛňunū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd plur.	çɛňunir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd plur.	çɛňunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňun gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive widely features the infix -iwň-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

Four tenses are simple:

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	gɛgugiwňū	hɛgɛgugiwňū	gugɛgiwňū	hɛgugɛgiwňū
2nd sing.	gɛgugiwňir	hɛgɛgugiwňir	gugɛgiwňir	hɛgugɛgiwňir
3rd sing.	gɛgugiwňɛc	hɛgɛgugiwňɛc	gugɛgiwňɛc	hɛgugɛgiwňɛc
	gɛgugiwň	hɛgɛgugiwň	gugɛgiwň	hɛgugɛgiwň
1st dual	gɛgugiwňiwhū	hɛgɛgugiwňiwhū	gugɛgiwňiwhū	hɛgugɛgiwňiwhū
2nd dual	gɛgugiwňiwhir	hɛgɛgugiwňiwhir	gugɛgiwňiwhir	hɛgugɛgiwňiwhir
3rd dual	gɛgugiwňiwcɛc	hɛgɛgugiwňiwcɛc	gugɛgiwňiwcɛc	hɛgugɛgiwňiwcɛc
	gɛgugiwňiwh	hɛgɛgugiwňiwh	gugɛgiwňiwh	hɛgugɛgiwňiwh
1st plur.	gɛgugiwňunū	hɛgɛgugiwňunū	gugɛgiwňunū	hɛgugɛgiwňunū
2nd plur.	gɛgugiwňunir	hɛgɛgugiwňunir	gugɛgiwňunir	hɛgugɛgiwňunir
3rd plur.	gɛgugiwňunjɛc	hɛgɛgugiwňunjɛc	gugɛgiwňunjɛc	hɛgugɛgiwňunjɛc
	gɛgugiwňun	hɛgɛgugiwňun	gugɛgiwňun	hɛgugɛgiwňun

Forms of the simple tenses in the subjunctive mood usually do not display other irregularities.

There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:

• Imperfective future: forms of the subjunctive present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative present: forms of the subjunctive present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative past: forms of the subjunctive past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.

	imperfective future	resultative present	resultative past
1st sing.	çɛňiwňū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd sing.	çɛňiwňir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd sing.	çɛňiwňɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňiwň gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st dual	çɛňiwňiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd dual	çeňiwňiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd dual	çɛňiwňiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çeňiwňiwh gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st plur.	çɛňiwňunū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd plur.	çɛňiwňunir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd plur.	çɛňiwňunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňiwňun gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ

Optative mood

The optative widely features the infix -uš-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

Four tenses are simple:

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	gɛgugušū	hɛgɛgugušū	gugɛgušū	hɛgugɛgušū
2nd sing.	gɛgugušir	hɛgɛgugušir	gugɛgušir	hɛgugɛgušir
3rd sing.	gɛgugušɛc	hɛgɛgugušɛc	gugɛgušɛc	hɛgugɛgušɛc
	gɛguguš	hɛgɛguguš	gugɛguš	hɛgugɛguš
1st dual	gɛgugušiwhū	hɛgɛgugušiwhū	gugɛgušiwhū	hɛgugɛgušiwhū
2nd dual	gɛgugušiwhir	hɛgɛgugušiwhir	gugɛgušiwhir	hɛgugɛgušiwhir
3rd dual	gɛgugušiwcɛc	hɛgɛgugušiwcɛc	gugɛgušiwcɛc	hɛgugɛgušiwcɛc
	gɛgugušiwh	hɛgɛgugušiwh	gugɛgušiwh	hɛgugɛgušiwh
1st plur.	gɛgugušunū	hɛgɛgugušunū	gugɛgušunū	hɛgugɛgušunū
2nd plur.	gɛgugušunir	hɛgɛgugušunir	gugɛgušunir	hɛgugɛgušunir
3rd plur.	gɛgugušunjɛc	hɛgɛgugušunjɛc	gugɛgušunjɛc	hɛgugɛgušunjɛc
	gɛgugušun	hɛgɛgugušun	gugɛgušun	hɛgugɛgušun

Forms of the simple tenses in the optative mood usually do not display other irregularities.

There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:

• Imperfective future: forms of the optative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative present: forms of the optative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative past: forms of the optative past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.

	imperfective future	resultative present	resultative past
1st sing.	çɛňušū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd sing.	çɛňušir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd sing.	çɛňušɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňuš gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňuš hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňuš hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st dual	çɛňušiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd dual	çeňušiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd dual	çɛňušiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çeňušiwh gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st plur.	çɛňušunū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd plur.	çɛňušunir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd plur.	çɛňušunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňušun gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ

Potential mood

The potential widely features the infix -jɛʈ- (or its palatalizing version, -ɛʈ-), which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

Four tenses are simple:

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	gɛgugjɛʈū	hɛgɛgugjɛʈū	gugɛgjɛʈū	hɛgugɛgjɛʈū
2nd sing.	gɛgugjɛʈir	hɛgɛgugjɛʈir	gugɛgjɛʈir	hɛgugɛgjɛʈir
3rd sing.	gɛgugjɛcɛc	hɛgɛgugjɛcɛc	gugɛgjɛcɛc	hɛgugɛgjɛcɛc
	gɛgugjɛʈ	hɛgɛgugjɛʈ	gugɛgjɛʈ	hɛgugɛgjɛʈ
1st dual	gɛgugjɛʈiwhū	hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwhū	gugɛgjɛʈiwhū	hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwhū
2nd dual	gɛgugjɛʈiwhir	hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwhir	gugɛgjɛʈiwhir	hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwhir
3rd dual	gɛgugjɛʈiwcɛc	hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwcɛc	gugɛgjɛʈiwcɛc	hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwcɛc
	gɛgugjɛʈiwh	hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwh	gugɛgjɛʈiwh	hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwh
1st plur.	gɛgugjɛʈunū	hɛgɛgugjɛʈunū	gugɛgjɛʈunū	hɛgugɛgjɛʈunū
2nd plur.	gɛgugjɛʈunir	hɛgɛgugjɛʈunir	gugɛgjɛʈunir	hɛgugɛgjɛʈunir
3rd plur.	gɛgugjɛʈunjɛc	hɛgɛgugjɛʈunjɛc	gugɛgjɛʈunjɛc	hɛgugɛgjɛʈunjɛc
	gɛgugjɛʈun	hɛgɛgugjɛʈun	gugɛgjɛʈun	hɛgugɛgjɛʈun

Forms of the simple tenses in the potential mood usually do not display other irregularities.

There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:

• Imperfective future: forms of the potential present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative present: forms of the potential present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative past: forms of the potential past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.

	imperfective future	resultative present	resultative past
1st sing.	çɛňɛʈū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd sing.	çɛňɛʈir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd sing.	çɛňɛcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňɛʈ gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈ hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈ hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st dual	çɛňɛʈiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd dual	çeňɛʈiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd dual	çɛňɛʈiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çeňɛʈiwh gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st plur.	çɛňɛʈunū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd plur.	çɛňɛʈunir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd plur.	çɛňɛʈunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňɛʈun gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňɛʈun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňɛʈun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ

The potential infix displays two possible forms, -jɛʈ or -^jɛʈ. The latter form is used after some consonants, palatalizing them, or is used after already palatalized consonants, without any further effect. It merges with the 3^rd singular person ending, palatalizing -ʈ into -c.

Non-finite forms

The non-finite verbal forms are:

Infinitive

	indicative	subjuncitve	optative	potential
imp. pres.	gɛgugiwgɛ	gɛgugiwňiwgɛ	gɛgugušiwgɛ	gɛgugjɛʈiwgɛ
imp. past	hɛgɛgugiwgɛ	hɛgɛgugiwňiwgɛ	hɛgɛgugušiwgɛ	hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwgɛ
imp. pres.	gugɛgiwgɛ	gugɛgiwňiwgɛ	gugɛgušiwgɛ	gugɛgjɛʈiwgɛ
imp. past	hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛgugɛgiwňiwgɛ	hɛgugɛgušiwgɛ	hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwgɛ

The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as a class II noun.

In its verbal function is usually used as object or subject of other verbs. It is the only non-finite form which has modal forms.

Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ablative case.

Participle

There are two participial forms, the agentive participle and the passive participle. Both participles have an imperfective and a perfective form, respectively built on the imperfective root and on the perfective root, and they have a present and a past form, this last formed through the augment.

The agentive participle is formed through the ending -īdu, while the passive participle through the ending -jugiw / -ugiw.

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
agentive	gɛgugīdu	hɛgɛgugīdu	gugɛgīdu	hɛgugɛgīdu
passive	gɛgugjugiw	hɛgɛgugjugiw	gugɛgjugiw	hɛgugɛgjugiw

The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. It is often used to build relative clauses. As an adjectival form it thus displays a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes, but agreeing with its adjoining noun.

The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses.

The passive participle suffix displays two possible forms, -jugiw or -^jugiw. The latter form is used after some consonants, palatalizing them, or is used after already palatalized consonants, without any further effect.

cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎugiw
to say → said

lilušiwgɛ → lilušugiw
to see → seen

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb qjysika. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.

Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the indicative infinitival form of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ablative case.

sopali hjyro qaňymac → sopali hjyroʂu ňymacika qaqjys
the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man

sopali ʎehon → sopali ʎehonika qjys
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.