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| ==Verbs==
| | {{main|Kī́rtako}} |
| The verbal system of Xowʂiko language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the ''perfective root'' ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
| | This page gives an extensive description of '''Kī́rtako syntactical''' features. |
| | ==Main clause and word order== |
| | Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. |
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| | wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt |
| | <small>the man sees the dog</small> |
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| CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C
| | The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''. |
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| Example:
| | sopa wī́roli lī́lop |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = wawok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = wowak- | | <small>the dog is seen by the man</small> |
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| In addition to vowels, diphthongs can also be switched:
| | The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence. |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = hjeqak- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = haqjek-
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| Rising diphthongs -je- and -jy- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:
| | A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case. |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = žemon- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ŕomjen- | | sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow |
| | <small>I do not see the dog.</small> |
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| In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.
| | Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form. |
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| However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:
| | ==Nouns== |
| | The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meanings to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun. |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = wäqimjeŕ- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = wäqjemiŕ-
| | The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective. |
| | wī́rora sṓgo |
| | <small>the man’s house</small> |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ʈäwehowr- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ʈewähowr- | | owtušu lilā́ |
| | <small>my hand</small> |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ŕäʈäwehek- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ŕäʈewähek- | | jṓpā́ ʔṓna |
| | <small>the young woman</small> |
| | The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. |
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| Monosyllabic roots, like qäɳ-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (<small>or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective</small>). This rule may apply to some loanwords.
| | Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form. |
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| Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix qa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.
| | jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt |
| | <small>the young man is going home</small> |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = wawok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = qawawok- | | jonora sṓgo |
| | <small>our house</small> |
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| There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:
| | jṓpā́no ʔṓnano |
| * ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional
| | <small>the young women</small> |
| * ''Non-finite'': infinitive, active participle, passive participle
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| The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ika, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent. | | ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon) |
| | <small>the women are young</small> |
| | The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number. |
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| The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number: | | The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition. |
| | sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow |
| | <small>I am going inside the house</small> |
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| {| class="wikitable"
| | === The cases=== |
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| | The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-oh</center>
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center>
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-</center>
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| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onoh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-on</center>
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| |}
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| The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings: | | The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9: |
| | | *''Agentive'' |
| *''indicative'': Ø | | *''Passive'' |
| *''subjunctive'': -iɳ- | | *''Ablative'' |
| *''conditional'': -oç- | | *''Genitive'' |
| | | *''Dative'' |
| The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.
| | *''Causative'' |
| | | *''Instrumental'' |
| As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.
| | *''Abessive'' |
| | | *''Locative'' |
| The non-finite endings are:
| | The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below: |
| *''infinitive'': -ika | |
| *''agentive participle'': -jyto | |
| *''passive participle'': -uki | |
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| The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class noun.
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| There is, moreover, a passive diathesis with an analytic-type construction, formed by the ver qäɳika, ''to be'', as an auxiliary verb, and the passive participle. It conveys the same modal, aspectual and temporal forms as the active diathesis.
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| === Conjugation of a regular verb ===
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| Example: śośirika, ''to take''
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| ====Active diathesis====
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| =====Indicative mood=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiroh</center> || <center>qaśośiroh</center> || <center>śiśoroh</center> || <center>qaśiśoroh</center>
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośirer</center> || <center>qaśośirer</center> || <center>śiśorer</center> || <center>qaśiśorer</center>
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośir</center> || <center>qaśośir</center> || <center>śiśor</center> || <center>qaśiśor</center>
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośironoh</center> || <center>qaśośironoh</center> || <center>śiśoronoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoronoh</center>
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośironer</center> || <center>qaśośironer</center> || <center>śiśoroner</center> || <center>qaśiśoroner</center>
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiron</center> || <center>qaśośiron</center> || <center>śiśoron</center> || <center>qaśiśoron</center>
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| |}
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| The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.
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| =====Subjunctive mood=====
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| The subjunctive widely features the infix -iɳ-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
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| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳoh</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳoh</center> || <center>śiśoriɳoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳoh</center>
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳer</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳer</center> || <center>śiśoriɳer</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳer</center>
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳ</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳ</center> || <center>śiśoriɳ</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳ</center>
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳonoh</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳonoh</center> || <center>śiśoriɳonoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳonoh</center>
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳoner</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳoner</center> || <center>śiśoriɳoner</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳoner</center>
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳon</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳon</center> || <center>śiśoriɳon</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳon</center>
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| |}
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| The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.
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| =====Conditional mood=====
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| The conditional widely features the infix -oç-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
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| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçoh</center> || <center>qaśośiroçoh</center> || <center>śiśoroçoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçoh</center>
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçer</center> || <center>qaśośiroçer</center> || <center>śiśoroçer</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçer</center>
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiroç</center> || <center>qaśośiroç</center> || <center>śiśoroç</center> || <center>qaśiśoroç</center>
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçonoh</center> || <center>qaśośiroçonoh</center> || <center>śiśoroçonoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçonoh</center>
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçoner</center> || <center>qaśośiroçoner</center> || <center>śiśoroçoner</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçoner</center>
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçon</center> || <center>qaśośiroçon</center> || <center>śiśoroçon</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçon</center>
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| |}
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| The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.
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| For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).
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| ====Non-finite forms====
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| The non-finite verbal forms are:
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| =====Infinitive=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>śośirika</center> || <center>śośiriɳika</center> || <center>śośiroçika</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>qaśośirika</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳika</center> || <center>qaśośiroçika</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>śiśorika</center> || <center>śiśoriɳika</center> || <center>śiśoroçika</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>qaśiśorika</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳika</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçika</center>
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| |}
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| The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as a 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class noun.
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| In its subjunctive form it is often used in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.
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| Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.
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| =====Active participle=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>śośirjyto</center> || <center>śośiriňyto</center> || <center>śośiročyto</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>qaśośirjyto</center> || <center>qaśośiriňyto</center> || <center>qaśośiročyto</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>śiśorjyto</center> || <center>śiśoriňyto</center> || <center>śiśoročyto</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>qaśiśorjyto</center> || <center>qaśiśoriňyto</center> || <center>qaśiśoročyto</center>
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| |-
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| |}
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| The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action.
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| All modal infixes merge with the active participle ending:
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| *-iɳ- + -jyto = -iňyto | |
| *-oç- + -jyto = -očyto
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| It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:
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| qownaʂu qaloljyçočytoli hjyroli
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| <small>the man which might have seen the woman</small>
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| As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.
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| =====Passive participle=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>śośiruki</center> || <center>śośiriɳuki</center> || <center>śośiroçuki</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>qaśośiruki</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳuki</center> || <center>qaśośiroçuki</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>śiśoruki</center> || <center>śiśoriɳuki</center> || <center>śiśoroçuki</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>qaśiśoruki</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳuki</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçuki</center>
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| |-
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| |}
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| The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. | |
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| It is often used as an adjective and to build relative clauses:
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| xäl qownaʂu qaloljyçukili hjyroli
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| <small>the man seen by the woman</small>
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| It is also largely used in the verbal conjugation, in the construction of the passive diathesis forms.
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| As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.
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| ====Passive diathesis====
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| The ''passive diathesis'' displays only compound forms, in every mood and tense. These forms are always built through the auxiliary verb qäɳika, ''to be'' with the various forms of the passive participle.
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| The usage of the different moods and tenses is exactly the same as the active diathesis. Notably, modal forms are conveyed by the auxiliary verb, while the aspectual and temporal forms are conveyed only by the participles.
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| Moreover, the passive participle does not agree in case with the subject of the sentence, keeping the accusative form. Conversely, it agrees with the subject only in number.
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| Examples:
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| çonunoli çiçacukino qäɳon
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| <small>the fields will be cultivated</small>
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| =====Indicative mood=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || imperfective present passive participle + indicative present forms of qäɳika
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || imperfective past passive participle + indicative present forms of qäɳika
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| | '''''perfective present''''' || perfective present passive participle + indicative present forms of qäɳika
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| |-
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| | '''''perfective past''''' || perfective past passive participle + indicative present forms of qäɳika
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| |}
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| Examples (<small>for each tense only the 1<sup><small>st</small></sup> person singular form is shown</small>):
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || śośiruki qäɳoh, ...
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || qaśośiruki qäɳoh, ...
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || śiśoruki qäɳoh, ...
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || qaśiśoruki qäɳoh, ...
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| |}
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| =====Subjunctive mood=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || imperfective present passive participle + subjunctive present forms of qäɳika
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || imperfective past passive participle + subjunctive present forms of qäɳika
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| |-
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| | '''''perfective present''''' || perfective present passive participle + subjunctive present forms of qäɳika
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| |-
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| | '''''perfective past''''' || perfective past passive participle + subjunctive present forms of qäɳika
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| |}
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| Examples (<small>for each tense only the 1<sup><small>st</small></sup> person singular form is shown</small>):
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || śośiruki qäɳiɳoh, ...
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || qaśośiruki qäɳiɳoh, ...
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || śiśoruki qäɳiɳoh, ...
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || qaśiśoruki qäɳiɳoh, ...
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| |}
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| =====Conditional mood=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || imperfective present passive participle + conditional present forms of qäɳika
| |
| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || imperfective past passive participle + conditional present forms of qäɳika
| |
| |-
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| | '''''perfective present''''' || perfective present passive participle + conditional present forms of qäɳika
| |
| |-
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| | '''''perfective past''''' || perfective past passive participle + conditional present forms of qäɳika
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| |}
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| Examples (<small>for each tense only the 1<sup><small>st</small></sup> person singular form is shown</small>):
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| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || śośiruki qäɳoçoh, ...
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || qaśośiruki qäɳoçoh, ...
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || śiśoruki qäɳoçoh, ...
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || qaśiśoruki qäɳoçoh, ...
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| |}
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| =====Infinitive mood=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || imperfective present passive participle + infinitive forms of qäɳika
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || imperfective past passive participle + infinitive forms of qäɳika
| |
| |-
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| | '''''perfective present''''' || perfective present passive participle + infinitive forms of qäɳika
| |
| |-
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| | '''''perfective past''''' || perfective past passive participle + infinitive forms of qäɳika
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| |}
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| Examples:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || śośiruki qäɳika
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || qaśośiruki qäɳika
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective present''''' || śiśoruki qäɳika
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| |-
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| | '''''imperfective past''''' || qaśiśoruki qäɳika
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| |}
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| ===Negation===
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| The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb qjysika. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.
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| Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''indicative infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.
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| sopali hjyro qaňymac → sopali hjyroʂu ňymacika qaqjys
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| <small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small>
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| sopali ʎehon → sopali ʎehonika qjys
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| <small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small>
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| ''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.
| |
- Main article: Kī́rtako
This page gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.
Main clause and word order
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) language.
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt
the man sees the dog
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is OSV (Object-Subject-Verbs), which marks the so-called passive construct.
sopa wī́roli lī́lop
the dog is seen by the man
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “place-manner-cause-time”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed before the direct object of the sentence.
A peculiar feature is the verbal infinitival agreement: when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ablative case.
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow
I do not see the dog.
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.
Nouns
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meanings to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying possession and belonging are always placed before the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.
wī́rora sṓgo
the man’s house
owtušu lilā́
my hand
jṓpā́ ʔṓna
the young woman
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called nominal agreement.
Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt
the young man is going home
jonora sṓgo
our house
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano
the young women
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)
the women are young
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by postpositions, which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow
I am going inside the house
The cases
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to grammatical cases, with usually well-defined roles.
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:
- Agentive
- Passive
- Ablative
- Genitive
- Dative
- Causative
- Instrumental
- Abessive
- Locative
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:
