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Verbs

The verbal system of Xowʂiko language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = wawok- → Rprf = wowak-

In addition to vowels, diphthongs can also be switched:

Rimp = hjeqak- → Rprf = haqjek-

Rising diphthongs -je- and -jy- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:

Rimp = žemon- → Rprf = ŕomjen-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

Rimp = wäqimjeŕ- → Rprf = wäqjemiŕ-

Rimp = ʈäwehowr- → Rprf = ʈewähowr-

Rimp = ŕäʈäwehek- → Rprf = ŕäʈewähek-

Monosyllabic roots, like qäɳ-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective). This rule may apply to some loanwords.

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix qa-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.

Rimp = wawok- → Rimp-past = qawawok-

There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional
• Non-finite: infinitive, active participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ika, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.	-oh
2nd sing.	-er
3rd sing.	-
1st plur.	-onoh
2nd plur.	-oner
3rd plur.	-on

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -iɳ-
• conditional: -oç-

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• infinitive: -ika
• agentive participle: -jyto
• passive participle: -uki

The infinitival form is meant as a 2^nd class noun.

There is, moreover, a passive diathesis with an analytic-type construction, formed by the ver qäɳika, to be, as an auxiliary verb, and the passive participle. It conveys the same modal, aspectual and temporal forms as the active diathesis.

Conjugation of a regular verb

Example: śośirika, to take

Active diathesis

Indicative mood

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	śośiroh	qaśośiroh	śiśoroh	qaśiśoroh
2nd sing.	śośirer	qaśośirer	śiśorer	qaśiśorer
3rd sing.	śośir	qaśośir	śiśor	qaśiśor
1st plur.	śośironoh	qaśośironoh	śiśoronoh	qaśiśoronoh
2nd plur.	śośironer	qaśośironer	śiśoroner	qaśiśoroner
3rd plur.	śośiron	qaśośiron	śiśoron	qaśiśoron

The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive widely features the infix -iɳ-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	śośiriɳoh	qaśośiriɳoh	śiśoriɳoh	qaśiśoriɳoh
2nd sing.	śośiriɳer	qaśośiriɳer	śiśoriɳer	qaśiśoriɳer
3rd sing.	śośiriɳ	qaśośiriɳ	śiśoriɳ	qaśiśoriɳ
1st plur.	śośiriɳonoh	qaśośiriɳonoh	śiśoriɳonoh	qaśiśoriɳonoh
2nd plur.	śośiriɳoner	qaśośiriɳoner	śiśoriɳoner	qaśiśoriɳoner
3rd plur.	śośiriɳon	qaśośiriɳon	śiśoriɳon	qaśiśoriɳon

The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.

Conditional mood

The conditional widely features the infix -oç-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	śośiroçoh	qaśośiroçoh	śiśoroçoh	qaśiśoroçoh
2nd sing.	śośiroçer	qaśośiroçer	śiśoroçer	qaśiśoroçer
3rd sing.	śośiroç	qaśośiroç	śiśoroç	qaśiśoroç
1st plur.	śośiroçonoh	qaśośiroçonoh	śiśoroçonoh	qaśiśoroçonoh
2nd plur.	śośiroçoner	qaśośiroçoner	śiśoroçoner	qaśiśoroçoner
3rd plur.	śośiroçon	qaśośiroçon	śiśoroçon	qaśiśoroçon

The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.

For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).

Non-finite forms

The non-finite verbal forms are:

Infinitive

	indicative	subjuncitve	conditional
imp. pres.	śośirika	śośiriɳika	śośiroçika
imp. past	qaśośirika	qaśośiriɳika	qaśośiroçika
imp. pres.	śiśorika	śiśoriɳika	śiśoroçika
imp. past	qaśiśorika	qaśiśoriɳika	qaśiśoroçika

The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as a 2^nd class noun.

In its subjunctive form it is often used in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.

Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ablative case.

Active participle

	indicative	subjuncitve	conditional
imp. pres.	śośirjyto	śośiriňyto	śośiročyto
imp. past	qaśośirjyto	qaśośiriňyto	qaśośiročyto
imp. pres.	śiśorjyto	śiśoriňyto	śiśoročyto
imp. past	qaśiśorjyto	qaśiśoriňyto	qaśiśoročyto

The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action.

It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ablative case:

qownaʂu qaloljyçočytoli hjyroli
the man which might have seen the woman

As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.

Passive participle

	indicative	subjuncitve	conditional
imp. pres.	śośiruki	śośiriɳuki	śośiroçuki
imp. past	qaśośiruki	qaśośiriɳuki	qaśośiroçuki
imp. pres.	śiśoruki	śiśoriɳuki	śiśoroçuki
imp. past	qaśiśoruki	qaśiśoriɳuki	qaśiśoroçuki

The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.

It is often used as an adjective and to build relative clauses:

xäl qownaʂu qaloljyçukili hjyroli
the man seen by the woman

As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb qjysika. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.

Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the indicative infinitival form of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ablative case.

sopali hjyro qaňymac → sopali hjyroʂu ňymacika qaqjys
the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man

sopali ʎehon → sopali ʎehonika qjys
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.