User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII

Verbs

The verbal system of Xowʂiko language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = wawok- → Rprf = wowak-

In addition to vowels, diphthongs can also be switched:

Rimp = hjeqak- → Rprf = haqjek-

Rising diphthongs -je- and -jy- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:

Rimp = žemon- → Rprf = ŕomjen-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

Rimp = wäqimjeŕ- → Rprf = wäqjemiŕ-

Rimp = ʈäwehowr- → Rprf = ʈewähowr-

Rimp = ŕäʈäwehek- → Rprf = ŕäʈewähek-

Monosyllabic roots, like qäɳ-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective). This rule may apply to some loanwords.

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix qa-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.

Rimp = wawok- → Rimp-past = qawawok-

There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional
• Non-finite: infinitive, active participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ika, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.	-oh
2nd sing.	-er
3rd sing.	-
1st plur.	-onoh
2nd plur.	-oner
3rd plur.	-on

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -iɳ-
• conditional: -oç-

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• infinitive: -ika
• agentive participle: -jyto
• passive participle: -uki

The infinitival form is meant as a 2^nd class noun.

There is, moreover, a passive diathesis with an analytic-type construction, formed by the ver qäɳika, to be, as an auxiliary verb, and the passive participle. It conveys the same modal, aspectual and temporal forms as the active diathesis.

Conjugation of a regular verb

Example: śośirika, to take

Active diathesis

Indicative mood

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	lī́lopow	ʔalī́lopow	lolī́pow	ʔalolī́pow
2nd sing.	lī́loper	ʔalī́loper	lolī́per	ʔalolī́per
3rd sing.	lī́lopɑt	ʔalī́lopɑt	lolī́pɑt	ʔalolī́pɑt
	lī́lop	ʔalī́lop	lolī́p	ʔalolī́p
1st plur.	lī́loponow	ʔalī́loponow	lolī́ponow	ʔalolī́ponow
2nd plur.	lī́loponer	ʔalī́loponer	lolī́poner	ʔalolī́poner
3rd plur.	lī́loponɑt	ʔalī́loponɑt	lolī́ponɑt	ʔalolī́ponɑt
	lī́lopon	ʔalī́lopon	lolī́pon	ʔalolī́pon

The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive widely features the infix -iwň-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

Four tenses are simple:

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	gɛgugiwňū	hɛgɛgugiwňū	gugɛgiwňū	hɛgugɛgiwňū
2nd sing.	gɛgugiwňir	hɛgɛgugiwňir	gugɛgiwňir	hɛgugɛgiwňir
3rd sing.	gɛgugiwňɛc	hɛgɛgugiwňɛc	gugɛgiwňɛc	hɛgugɛgiwňɛc
	gɛgugiwň	hɛgɛgugiwň	gugɛgiwň	hɛgugɛgiwň
1st dual	gɛgugiwňiwhū	hɛgɛgugiwňiwhū	gugɛgiwňiwhū	hɛgugɛgiwňiwhū
2nd dual	gɛgugiwňiwhir	hɛgɛgugiwňiwhir	gugɛgiwňiwhir	hɛgugɛgiwňiwhir
3rd dual	gɛgugiwňiwcɛc	hɛgɛgugiwňiwcɛc	gugɛgiwňiwcɛc	hɛgugɛgiwňiwcɛc
	gɛgugiwňiwh	hɛgɛgugiwňiwh	gugɛgiwňiwh	hɛgugɛgiwňiwh
1st plur.	gɛgugiwňunū	hɛgɛgugiwňunū	gugɛgiwňunū	hɛgugɛgiwňunū
2nd plur.	gɛgugiwňunir	hɛgɛgugiwňunir	gugɛgiwňunir	hɛgugɛgiwňunir
3rd plur.	gɛgugiwňunjɛc	hɛgɛgugiwňunjɛc	gugɛgiwňunjɛc	hɛgugɛgiwňunjɛc
	gɛgugiwňun	hɛgɛgugiwňun	gugɛgiwňun	hɛgugɛgiwňun

Forms of the simple tenses in the subjunctive mood usually do not display other irregularities.

There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:

• Imperfective future: forms of the subjunctive present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative present: forms of the subjunctive present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative past: forms of the subjunctive past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.

	imperfective future	resultative present	resultative past
1st sing.	çɛňiwňū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd sing.	çɛňiwňir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd sing.	çɛňiwňɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňiwň gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st dual	çɛňiwňiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd dual	çeňiwňiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd dual	çɛňiwňiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çeňiwňiwh gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st plur.	çɛňiwňunū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd plur.	çɛňiwňunir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd plur.	çɛňiwňunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňiwňun gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňiwňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňiwňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ

Conditional mood

The optative widely features the infix -uš-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.

Four tenses are simple:

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1st sing.	gɛgugušū	hɛgɛgugušū	gugɛgušū	hɛgugɛgušū
2nd sing.	gɛgugušir	hɛgɛgugušir	gugɛgušir	hɛgugɛgušir
3rd sing.	gɛgugušɛc	hɛgɛgugušɛc	gugɛgušɛc	hɛgugɛgušɛc
	gɛguguš	hɛgɛguguš	gugɛguš	hɛgugɛguš
1st dual	gɛgugušiwhū	hɛgɛgugušiwhū	gugɛgušiwhū	hɛgugɛgušiwhū
2nd dual	gɛgugušiwhir	hɛgɛgugušiwhir	gugɛgušiwhir	hɛgugɛgušiwhir
3rd dual	gɛgugušiwcɛc	hɛgɛgugušiwcɛc	gugɛgušiwcɛc	hɛgugɛgušiwcɛc
	gɛgugušiwh	hɛgɛgugušiwh	gugɛgušiwh	hɛgugɛgušiwh
1st plur.	gɛgugušunū	hɛgɛgugušunū	gugɛgušunū	hɛgugɛgušunū
2nd plur.	gɛgugušunir	hɛgɛgugušunir	gugɛgušunir	hɛgugɛgušunir
3rd plur.	gɛgugušunjɛc	hɛgɛgugušunjɛc	gugɛgušunjɛc	hɛgugɛgušunjɛc
	gɛgugušun	hɛgɛgugušun	gugɛgušun	hɛgugɛgušun

Forms of the simple tenses in the optative mood usually do not display other irregularities.

There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:

• Imperfective future: forms of the optative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative present: forms of the optative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
• Resultative past: forms of the optative past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.

	imperfective future	resultative present	resultative past
1st sing.	çɛňušū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd sing.	çɛňušir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd sing.	çɛňušɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňuš gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňuš hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňuš hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st dual	çɛňušiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd dual	çeňušiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd dual	çɛňušiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çeňušiwh gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
1st plur.	çɛňušunū gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
2nd plur.	çɛňušunir gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
3rd plur.	çɛňušunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ
	çɛňušun gɛgugiwgɛ	çɛňušun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛçɛňušun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ

Non-finite forms

The non-finite verbal forms are:

Infinitive

	indicative	subjuncitve	optative	potential
imp. pres.	gɛgugiwgɛ	gɛgugiwňiwgɛ	gɛgugušiwgɛ	gɛgugjɛʈiwgɛ
imp. past	hɛgɛgugiwgɛ	hɛgɛgugiwňiwgɛ	hɛgɛgugušiwgɛ	hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwgɛ
imp. pres.	gugɛgiwgɛ	gugɛgiwňiwgɛ	gugɛgušiwgɛ	gugɛgjɛʈiwgɛ
imp. past	hɛgugɛgiwgɛ	hɛgugɛgiwňiwgɛ	hɛgugɛgušiwgɛ	hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwgɛ

The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as a class II noun.

In its verbal function is usually used as object or subject of other verbs. It is the only non-finite form which has modal forms.

Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ablative case.

Participle

There are two participial forms, the agentive participle and the passive participle. Both participles have an imperfective and a perfective form, respectively built on the imperfective root and on the perfective root, and they have a present and a past form, this last formed through the augment.

The agentive participle is formed through the ending -īdu, while the passive participle through the ending -jugiw / -ugiw.

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
agentive	gɛgugīdu	hɛgɛgugīdu	gugɛgīdu	hɛgugɛgīdu
passive	gɛgugjugiw	hɛgɛgugjugiw	gugɛgjugiw	hɛgugɛgjugiw

The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. It is often used to build relative clauses. As an adjectival form it thus displays a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes, but agreeing with its adjoining noun.

The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses.

The passive participle suffix displays two possible forms, -jugiw or -^jugiw. The latter form is used after some consonants, palatalizing them, or is used after already palatalized consonants, without any further effect.

cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎugiw
to say → said

lilušiwgɛ → lilušugiw
to see → seen

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb qjysika. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.

Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the indicative infinitival form of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ablative case.

sopali hjyro qaňymac → sopali hjyroʂu ňymacika qaqjys
the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man

sopali ʎehon → sopali ʎehonika qjys
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.