Xowʂiko morphology

Main article: Xowʂiko

This page gives an extensive description of Xowʂiko morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in Xowʂiko language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ä-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or first class and inanimate nouns or second class. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:

• 1^st class: human beings, animals, deities
• 2^nd class: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions

A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.

For example, the word säɳo, sun, shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, as the noun qacow, wind, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree.

Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.

There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural.

Cases

Kī́rtako nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 9 cases:

Case	Meaning
Nominative	This case marks the subject of a verb
Accusative	This case marks the direct object of a verb. It is also used with some postpositions. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and as its citation form. It is also used as the vocative form.
Ablative	This case marks primarily a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, body parts), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging. It also marks the point of origin of a movement (motion from a place). It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb.
Genitive	This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1st class.
Dative	This case marks primarily the indirect object. It can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place), and, in a broad sense, the final purpose of an action or a state.
Causative	This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.
Instrumental	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.
Abessive	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.
Locative	This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2nd class.

The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:

1. Main cases: nominative, accusative
2. Primary oblique cases: ablative, dative, causative
3. Secondary oblique cases: genitive
4. Tertiary oblique cases: instrumental, abessive, locative

Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various prepositions, which can select one or more cases.

Noun declension

Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

	1st class		2nd class
	singular	plural	singular	plural
nominative	-li	-noli	-li	-noli
accusative	-	-no	-	-no
ablative	-ʂu	-noʂu	-ʂu	-noʂu
genitive	-ra	-nora
dative	-ŕä	-noŕä	-ŕä	-noŕä
causative	-ɣu	-noɣu	-ɣu	-noɣu
instrumental			-ɣä	-noɣä
abessive			-wil1	-nowil
locative			-ʈar	-noʈar

¹This ending changes into -il, when added to a noun ending in -w.

Some examples are shown below: a 1^st class noun, papu, father, and a 2^nd class noun, sowo, house.

	papu		sowo
	singular	plural	singular	plural
nominative	papuli	papunoli	sowoli	sowonoli
accusative	papu	papuno	sowo	sowono
ablative	papuʂu	papunošu	sowoʂu	sowonoʂu
genitive	papura	papunora
dative	papuŕä	papunoŕä	sowoŕä	sowonoŕä
causative	papuɣu	papunoɣu	sowoɣu	sowonoɣu
instrumental			sowoɣä	sowonoɣä
abessive			sowowil	sowonowil
locative			sowoʈar	sowonoʈar

As for the rules, the endings for the tertiary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1^st class noun, while the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 2^st class noun.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.

xowpajli hjyroli
(the) young man

hjyroli xowpajli qäɳ
(the) man is young

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.

xowpajra hjyrora rjeqoli sowoli piwkoʈar häciʈar mjeqis
the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Example: rjeqo, new

	rḗʔo
	singular	plural
nominative	rjeqoli	rjeqonoli
accusative	rjeqo	rjeqono
ablative	rjeqoʂu	rjeqonoʂu
genitive	rjeqora	rjeqonora
dative	rjeqoŕä	rjeqonoŕä
causative	rjeqoɣu	rjeqonoɣu
instrumental	rjeqoɣä	rjeqonoɣä
abessive	rjeqowil	rjeqonowil
locative	rjeqoʈar	rjeqonoʈar

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns are:

	1st sing.	2nd sing.	3rd sing.	1st plur.	2nd plur.	3rd plur.
nominative	xoli	näli	niwli	xonoli	nänoli	niwnoli
accusative	xo	nä	niw	xono	näno	niwno
ablative	xoʂu	näʂu	niwʂu	xonoʂu	nänoʂu	niwnoʂu
genitive	xora	nära	niwra	xonora	nänora	niwnora
dative	xoŕä	näŕä	niwŕä	xonoŕä	nänoŕä	niwnoŕä
causative	xoɣu	näɣu	niwɣu	xonoɣu	nänoɣu	niwnoɣu
instrumental			niwɣä			niwnoɣä
abessive			niwil			niwnowil
locative			niwʈar			niwnoʈar

First and second person forms are meant as referents for 1^st class entities; the endings for the tertiary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1^st or the 2^nd class.

The forms for the genitive case and for and the ablative case cannot convey possession or belonging, conveying only other roles of such cases. Either possession or belonging are conveyed through possessive adjectives and pronouns.