Proto-Saːkdi morphology

Main article: Proto-Saːkdi

This page gives an extensive description of Proto-Saːkdi morphological features.

As already mentioned, Proto-Saːkdi is a morphologically isolating language. Each lexeme does not undergo any morphological mutation. Syntactical roles are thus entirely expressed by syntax and word order. Lexemes can, however, combine in many derivative processes.

Nouns

Nouns in Proto-Saːkdi usually have a multisyllabic form; they very rarely have a monosyllabic form.

On the morphological level nouns display no number, case or definiteness, exhibiting always the same unaltered form:

moːrɖa
wolf - a wolf - the wolf - wolves - the wolves

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives and pronouns have their own form, but, like the nouns, they do not display any morphological change for either number, case or definiteness.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed after the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed before them or after the verb.

rosmɔq qiːrjun
a young man

qɛsʈaʡ qiːrjun rosmɔq
the man is young

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are forms on their own:

digit	full form
1:	pɛːm
2:	laz
3:	ħuːd
4:	ɖajr
5:	ʂuʡ
6:	towŋ
7:	kiːr
8:	ʐeːr
9:	bɔp
10:	ʂujl

Numerals from 11 to 19 can be built:

• With the numeral unit + the numeral ʂujl, NUM + ʂujl

digit	noun form
11:	pɛːmʂujl
11:	lazʂujl

• With ʂujl + the postposition nɔ, over, + the numeral unit, ʂujl + nɔ + NUM:

digit	noun form
11:	ʂujlnɔpɛːm
11:	ʂujlnɔlaz

The numeral for (one) hundred is a form on its own:

digit	full form
100:	qijm

The numeral (one) thousand is morphologically derived from the form for (one) hundred:

digit	full form
1000:	ɴɔrqijm

The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + (a)raz (times) + ʂujl / qijm / ɴɔrqijm:

	tens	hundreds	thousands
2x:	lazrazʂujl	lazrazqijm	lazrazɴɔrqijm
3x:	ħuːdrazʂujl	ħuːdrazqijm	ħuːdrazɴɔrqijm
4x:	ɖajrarazʂujl	ɖajrarazqijm	ɖajrarazɴɔrqijm
5x:	ʂuʡrazʂujl	ʂuʡrazqijm	ʂuʡrazɴɔrqijm
6x:	towŋrazʂujl	towŋrazqijm	towŋrazɴɔrqijm
7x:	kiːrarazʂujl	kiːrarazqijm	kiːrarazɴɔrqijm
8x:	ʐeːrarazʂujl	ʐeːrarazqijm	ʐeːrarazɴɔrqijm
9x:	bɔprazʂujl	bɔprazqijm	bɔprazɴɔrqijm

Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.

Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

• 2985: lazrazɴɔrqijm bɔprazqijm ʐeːrarazʂujl ʂuʡ

As for other parts of the language, all cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the prefix pe- and the suffix -ta to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	adjective form
1st:	pepɛːmta
2nd:	pelazta
3rd:	peħuːd(a)ta
4th:	peɖajrta
5th:	peʂuʡta
6th:	petowŋta
7th:	pekiːrta
8th:	peʐeːrta
9th:	pebɔpta
10th:	peʂujlta
11th:	pepɛːmʂujlta
12th:	pelaz(a)ʂujlta
20th:	pelazrazʂujlta
30th:	peħuːdrazʂujlta
600th:	petowŋrazqijmta
9000th:	pebɔprazɴɔrqijmta

If the numeral form is composite, both affixes are added to every form:

• 325^th: peħuːdrazqijmta pelazrazʂujlta peʂuʡta

Verbs

Verbs in Proto-Saːkdi language usually have a multisyllabic form. Each verbal form carries only the semantical information, while other features are conveyed by other grammatic particles.

On the morphological level the verb display no person, or number, exhibiting always the same unaltered form:

kotnez
(I, you, he, she, it, we, they) hear

The verbal person is conveyed by nouns and personal pronouns, which can convey also the number, unlike nouns:

kotnez ɔn
I hear

kotnez eʂeʂ
you (pl.) hear

The verb, however, can be adjoined by particles, which convey either the aspectual or the temporal value of an action or a state. The set of the verb form, carrying the meaning, together with the temporal and the aspectual particles is called verb cluster.

kotnez ŋuh pɔ
hear - past - perfective

The aspectual particles are:

aspect	particle
progressive	moʈ
perfective	ŋuh
resultative	boh
habitual	ʡab
repetitive	rɔp
experiential	jaq
prospective	ɴes

The absence of an aspectual particle is understood as a gnomic aspect, namely pointing to an always extant and true action or state. The aspectual particle are always place after the verb, and are not usually left out. Examples:

kotnez ɔn
I hear (always)

kotnez moʈ ɔn
I am hearing

kotnez ŋuh ɔn
I heard

The temporal particles are:

time	particle
present	re
past	pɔ
future	saː

Temporal particles are similar to temporal adverbs, and sometimes they are regarded as such. However, they are somehow tied to the verb, as part of the verb cluster. They tend to be placed in the clause position for time referements.

These forms are not always expressed, only if deemed necessary for the temporal identification of the clause. In a common clause, only the aspect is expressed. The temporal referement is substantially indefinite and they are not expressed if a more definite temporal referement is already present in the clause.

kotnez moʈ ɔn saː
I will be hearing

kotnez boh ɔn re 
I've heard just a bit ago

Two additional particles can be placed before the verb, tiː, which conveys a meaning of command, being thus an imperative particle, and niː, which conveys a meaning of negative command or prohibition, being thus a prohibitive particle.

	particle
imperative	tiː
prohibitive	niː

These particles are mandatorily used when orders and prohibitions are to be conveyed. When used, personal pronouns, aspectual particles, and temporal particles are usually not required, but they can be optionally used.

tı̇ː gohʈaʡ
go!

tı̇ː gohʈaʡ ŋuh
go! (up to destination)

tı̇ː gohʈaʡ eʂ mu tı̇ː konpɑːdrɛːh uʈ
you go, but he stay!

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative adverb ne. This adverb is placed after the verb cluster, namely after the verb or the aspectual particles.

ʈiːmrɛːh moʈ boːrɖa → ʈiːmrɛːh moʈ ne boːrɖa
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn't sleeping

ʡɛːħnez ŋuh rosmɔq boːrɖa pɔ → ʡɛːħnez ŋuh ne rosmɔq boːrɖa pɔ
the dog had bitten the man → the dog hadn't bitten the man

A negative imperative, conveyed by the prohibitive particle niː, does not need any additional negative particles.

niː ʈiːmrɛːh
don't sleep!

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.