Proto-Saːkdi morphology
- Main article: Proto-Saːkdi
This page gives an extensive description of Proto-Saːkdi morphological features.
As already mentioned, Proto-Saːkdi is a morphologically isolating language. Each lexeme does not undergo any morphological mutation. Syntactical roles are thus entirely expressed by syntax and word order. Lexemes can, however, combine in many derivative processes.
Nouns
Nouns in Proto-Saːkdi usually have a multisyllabic form; they very rarely have a monosyllabic form.
On the morphological level nouns display no number, case or definiteness, exhibiting always the same unaltered form:
moːrɖa wolf - a wolf - the wolf - wolves - the wolves
Adjectives and pronouns
Adjectives and pronouns have their own form, but, like the nouns, they do not display any morphological change for either number, case or definiteness.
Adjectives
Attributive adjectives are always placed after the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed before them or after the verb.
rosmɔq qiːrjun a young man
qɛsʈaʡ qiːrjun rosmɔq the man is young
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns feature a distinction between three persons:
| ɔn | |
| eʂ | |
| uʈ |
Unlike any other elements of the sentence, the personal pronouns compulsorily distinguish the number singular from the plural, through reduplication:
| ɔn | ɔnɔn | |
| eʂ | eʂeʂ | |
| uʈ | uʈuʈ |
For the 1st plural person an alternative form is built, by merging the 1st singular person form with the 2nd singular person form.
This form conveys the first inclusive plural person, which includes both the speaker and the listener, while the normally reduplicated form conveys the first exclusive plural person, which includes the speaker but excludes the listener:
| ɔn | ɔneʂ | ɔnɔn |
The 3st person pronoun usually refers to semantically animate or human entities, although it may technically refer to every entity. For inanimate or unreal entities, demonostrative adjectives or pronouns are rather used.
All forms, if adjoined by the preposition koː, play the role of an indeclinable possessive adjective, being placed after a noun, or the role of indeclinable possessive pronoun, being placed after a demonstrative pronominal form.
buːgnez ŋuh ʐanhan koː eʂeʂ roshan koː ɔn my father saw your mother
buːgnez ŋuh uʈ koː eʂeʂ roshan koː ɔn my father saw yours
Numerals
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.
Cardinal numerals
The first ten cardinal numbers are forms on their own:
| pɛːm | |
| laz | |
| ħuːd | |
| ɖajr | |
| ʂuʡ | |
| towŋ | |
| kiːr | |
| ʐeːr | |
| bɔp | |
| ʂujl |
Numerals from 11 to 19 can be built:
- With the numeral unit + the numeral ʂujl, NUM + ʂujl
| pɛːmʂujl | |
| lazʂujl |
- With ʂujl + the postposition nɔ, over, + the numeral unit, ʂujl + nɔ + NUM:
| ʂujlnɔpɛːm | |
| ʂujlnɔlaz |
The numeral for (one) hundred is a form on its own:
| qijm |
The numeral (one) thousand is morphologically derived from the form for (one) hundred:
| ɴɔrqijm |
The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + (a)raz (times) + ʂujl / qijm / ɴɔrqijm:
| lazrazʂujl | lazrazqijm | lazrazɴɔrqijm | |
| ħuːdrazʂujl | ħuːdrazqijm | ħuːdrazɴɔrqijm | |
| ɖajrarazʂujl | ɖajrarazqijm | ɖajrarazɴɔrqijm | |
| ʂuʡrazʂujl | ʂuʡrazqijm | ʂuʡrazɴɔrqijm | |
| towŋrazʂujl | towŋrazqijm | towŋrazɴɔrqijm | |
| kiːrarazʂujl | kiːrarazqijm | kiːrarazɴɔrqijm | |
| ʐeːrarazʂujl | ʐeːrarazqijm | ʐeːrarazɴɔrqijm | |
| bɔprazʂujl | bɔprazqijm | bɔprazɴɔrqijm |
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.
Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:
- 2985: lazrazɴɔrqijm bɔprazqijm ʐeːrarazʂujl ʂuʡ
As for other parts of the language, all cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the prefix pe- and the suffix -ta to the cardinal numeral form:
| pepɛːmta | |
| pelazta | |
| peħuːd(a)ta | |
| peɖajrta | |
| peʂuʡta | |
| petowŋta | |
| pekiːrta | |
| peʐeːrta | |
| pebɔpta | |
| peʂujlta | |
| pepɛːmʂujlta | |
| pelaz(a)ʂujlta | |
| pelazrazʂujlta | |
| peħuːdrazʂujlta | |
| petowŋrazqijmta | |
| pebɔprazɴɔrqijmta |
If the numeral form is composite, both affixes are added to every form:
- 325th: peħuːdrazqijmta pelazrazʂujlta peʂuʡta
Verbs
Verbs in Proto-Saːkdi language usually have a multisyllabic form. Each verbal form carries only the semantical information, while other features are conveyed by other grammatic particles.
On the morphological level the verb display no person, or number, exhibiting always the same unaltered form:
kotnez (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) hear
The verbal person is conveyed by nouns and personal pronouns, which can convey also the number, unlike nouns:
kotnez ɔn I hear
kotnez eʂeʂ you (pl.) hear
The verb, however, can be adjoined by particles, which convey either the aspectual or the temporal value of an action or a state. The set of the verb form, carrying the meaning, together with the temporal and the aspectual particles is called verb cluster.
kotnez ŋuh pɔ hear - past - perfective
The aspectual particles are:
| progressive | |
| perfective | |
| resultative | |
| habitual | |
| repetitive | |
| experiential | |
| prospective |
The absence of an aspectual particle is understood as a gnomic aspect, namely pointing to an always extant and true action or state. The aspectual particle are always place after the verb, and are not usually left out. Examples:
kotnez ɔn I hear (always)
kotnez moʈ ɔn I am hearing
kotnez ŋuh ɔn I heard
The temporal particles are:
| present | |
| past | |
| future |
Temporal particles are similar to temporal adverbs, and sometimes they are regarded as such. However, they are somehow tied to the verb, as part of the verb cluster. They tend to be placed in the clause position for time referements.
These forms are not always expressed, only if deemed necessary for the temporal identification of the clause. In a common clause, only the aspect is expressed. The temporal referement is substantially indefinite and they are not expressed if a more definite temporal referement is already present in the clause.
kotnez moʈ ɔn saː I will be hearing
kotnez boh ɔn re I've heard just a bit ago
Two additional particles can be placed before the verb, tiː, which conveys a meaning of command, being thus an imperative particle, and niː, which conveys a meaning of negative command or prohibition, being thus a prohibitive particle.
| imperative | |
| prohibitive |
These particles are mandatorily used when orders and prohibitions are to be conveyed. When used, personal pronouns, aspectual particles, and temporal particles are usually not required, but they can be optionally used.
tı̇ː gohʈaʡ go!
tı̇ː gohʈaʡ ŋuh go! (up to destination)
tı̇ː gohʈaʡ eʂ mu tı̇ː konpɑːdrɛːh uʈ you go, but he stay!
Negation
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative adverb ne. This adverb is placed after the verb cluster, namely after the verb or the aspectual particles.
ʈiːmrɛːh moʈ boːrɖa → ʈiːmrɛːh moʈ ne boːrɖa the dog is sleeping → the dog isn't sleeping
ʡɛːħnez ŋuh rosmɔq boːrɖa pɔ → ʡɛːħnez ŋuh ne rosmɔq boːrɖa pɔ the dog had bitten the man → the dog hadn't bitten the man
A negative imperative, conveyed by the prohibitive particle niː, does not need any additional negative particles.
niː ʈiːmrɛːh don't sleep!
Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.
