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Verbs

The verbal system of Biwdiw language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one by means of the prefix hɛ-, known as augment:

Rimp → e(Rimp)prf

Example:

Rimp = gɛgug- → Rprf = gugɛg-

In addition to vowels, the diphthongs -jɛ-, -ju- and -iw- can be switched:

Rimp = čiwgul- → Rprf = čugiwl-

Rising diphthongs -jɛ- and -ju- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:

Rimp = cɛgil- → Rprf = ʈigjɛl-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

Rimp = hūgāsus- → Rprf = hūgusās-

Rimp = ʂēhiwšōr- → Rprf = ʂiwhēšōr-

Rimp = xjɛcɛgilig- → Rprf = xjɛʈigjɛlig-

Monosyllabic roots, like çɛň-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective). This rule may apply to some loanwords.

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix hɛ-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.

Rimp = gɛgug- → Rimp-past = hɛgɛgug-

There are also three analytic verbal forms, compound tenses with the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, and an infinitival form: an imperfective future, a perfect resultative and a plusquamperfect resultative.

There are four verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, optative, potential
• Non-finite: infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -iwgɛ, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.	-ū
2nd sing.	-ir
3rd sing.	-jɛc / -jɛc
	-
1st dual	-iwhū
2nd dual	-iwhir
3rd dual	-iwcɛc
	-iwh
1st plur.	-unū
2nd plur.	-unir
3rd plur.	-unjɛc
	-un

In the 3^rd singular person, one of the endings displays two possible forms, -jɛc or -^jɛc. After some consonants this ending appears as -ɛc, and palatalizes the previous consonant, or it is added to an already palatalized consonant without further effects.

cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎɛc
to say → he/she/it says

lilušiwgɛ → lilušɛc
to see → he/she/it sees

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -iwň-
• optative: -uš-
• potential: -jɛʈ- / -^jɛʈ-

The potential mood infix displays the same irregularities as the 3^rd singular person ending and it follows the same rules. All modal infixes merge with the 3^rd singular person ending:

• -iwň- + -jɛc = -iwňɛc
• -uš- + -jɛc = -ušɛc
• -jɛʈ- + -jɛc = -jɛcɛc

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• infinitive: -iwgɛ
• agentive participle: -īdu
• passive participle: -jugiw- / -^jugiw-

The passive participle ending displays the same irregularities as the 3^rd singular person ending and it follows the same rules.

The infinitival form is meant as a class II noun.