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==Verbs==
==Verbs==
The main distinction made in the verbal system of Proto-Piti language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots, with a '''''CVCVC''''' structure, for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the ''perfective root'' ('''R<sub>prf</sub>''').
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the ''perfective root'' ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
 
  CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C
The basic form is generally the imperfective root. The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
   
'''CV<sub>1</sub>CV<sub>2</sub>C''' → '''CV<sub>2</sub>CV<sub>1</sub>C'''
 
Example:
Example:
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.


'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = '''ŋaŋok-''' → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = '''ŋoŋak-'''
In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.  
 
There is a limited amount of verbal roots with a '''''CVC''''' structure, called ''monosyllabic roots''. These roots do not have a perfective counterpart, not displaying, thus, the usual introflexive process of vowel switching.
 
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = '''tʰaːŋ-'''


These roots display thus only one aspect, usually the ''imperfective''.
However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:


Another distinction, newer than the aspectual distinction, is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix '''ʔa-''', known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gū́nḗɣow- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gū́noɣḗw-


  '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = '''ŋaŋok-''' → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = '''ʔaŋaŋok-'''
  '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = hā́kisok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = hikā́sok-
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = '''tʰaːŋ-''' → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = '''ʔatʰaːŋ-'''


The following modal infixes can be added to every verbal root:
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = hɑtsɑgewṓr- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = hɑtsegɑwṓr-
*''indicative'': '''Ø'''
*''subjunctive'': '''-iɳ-'''
*''optative'': '''-oṕ-'''
*''potential'': '''-æʈ-'''


As they infer a modal value to the root, without altering the aspectual information, these infixes are not involved in the vowel switching process.
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-


In the archaic period, the verb is not declined for person or bumber, and the original personal pronoun are mandatorily used to convey the first and the second person. Since the word order is initially VSO, these pronouns are placed right after the verbal form. They are then cliticized to the verb, turning into actual personal endings. In an earlier stage, these endings convey only the first two persons, without distinguishing any number.
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle


{|-
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.
| colspan="2" | ''Personal morphemes''
|-
| style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup>''</small></center>  || style="width: 60px;"| '''-oɬ'''
|-
| <center><small>''2<sup>st</sup>''</small></center> || '''-er'''
|}
 
The third person displays two possible endings: '''-æt́''', derived from the demonstrative pronominal root, and '''-Ø''', namely a ''zero marking''. This dichotomy arises from the original lacking of any personal marking when the subject is clearly expressed. Usage of such ending, however, remain significantly unclear and the daughter languages display different strategies in their development.
 
Number marking appears in a later, but still pre-diasporic, period. It is considerably free and unstable. Similarly to the nominal declension, numeral morphemes can be freely placed before or after the personal morphemes.
{|-
| colspan="2" | ''Numeral morphemes''
|-
| style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 60px;"| '''-'''
|-
| <center><small>''plural''</small></center> || '''-on'''
|-
| <center><small>''dual''</small></center> || '''-iʔ'''
|}


In the later pre-diasporic period, the scheme of the personal endings looks like this:
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || colspan="2" | <center>'''-oɬ'''</center>
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center>
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || colspan="2" | <center>'''-er'''</center>
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || colspan="2" | <center>'''-æt́'''</center>
|-
|-
| colspan="2" | <center>'''-'''</center>
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center>
|-
|-
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>'''-iʔoɬ'''</center> || style="width: 70px;"| <center>'''-oɬiʔ'''</center>
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center>
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>'''-iʔer'''</center> || <center>'''-eriʔ'''</center>
| <center>-</center>
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>'''-iʔæt́'''</center> || <center>'''-æt́iʔ'''</center>
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center>
|-
|-
| colspan="2" | <center>'''-iʔ'''</center>
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center>
|-
|-
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>'''-onoɬ'''</center> || <center>'''-oɬon'''</center>
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center>
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>'''-oner'''</center> || <center>'''-eron'''</center>
| <center>-on</center>
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>'''-onæt́'''</center> || <center>'''-æt́on'''</center>
|-
| colspan="2" | <center>'''-on'''</center>
|}
|}


These endings are added after the modal infixes. As they derive from pronominal or numeral cliticized forms, these endings are not involved in the vowel switching process.
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
 
*''indicative'': Ø
There are, moreover, other endings, which are used to create non-verbal non-finite forms. There are two nominal forms, the ''infinitive<small><sub>1</sub></small>'', and the the ''infinitive<small><sub>2</sub></small>'', and two adjectival forms, the ''active participle'' and the ''passive participle''. These endings can be added to both aspectual root and take the augment, to convey their aspectual and temporal value..
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-
 
*''conditional'': -ɑts-
*''infinitive<small><sub>1</sub></small>'': '''-æme'''
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.
*''infinitive<small><sub>2</sub></small>'': '''-ika'''
*''agentive participle'': '''-iːto'''
*''passive participle'': '''-uki'''
 
As these endings infer a nominal/adjectival value to the root, without altering the aspectual information, these infixes are not involved in the vowel switching process.
 
Verbal roots can be also expanded by derivative morpheme, both suffixes and prefixes. Suffixes infer an additional grammatical information, while prefixes infer an additional semantical meaning to the root:
 
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = '''ʔimeːχek-''' → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = '''ʔeːmiχek-'''


'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = '''muːʔimeːχ-''' → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = '''muːʔeːmiχ-'''
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.


As these endings infer a derivative value to the root, without altering the aspectual information, these infixes are not involved in the vowel switching process. A notable exception affects the monosyllabic roots with a '''CVC''' structures. These endings, when added to such roots, can be involved in the vowel switching process, as they can infer a grammatical information, also an aspectual one.
The non-finite endings are:
*''infinitive'': -ɑme
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to
*''passive participle'': -uki


  '''ʔæɳ-''' → '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = '''ʔæɳek-''' → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = '''ʔeɳæk-'''
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.

Revision as of 06:55, 9 June 2025

Verbs

The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (Rimp) and the perfective root (Rprf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching: 

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example: 

Rimp = gagok- → Rprf = gogak-

Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root: 

Rimp = gū́nḗɣow- → Rprf = gū́noɣḗw-

Rimp = hā́kisok- → Rprf = hikā́sok-

Rimp = hɑtsɑgewṓr- → Rprf = hɑtsegɑwṓr-

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence. 

Rimp = gagok- → Rimp-past = ʔagagok-

There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

  • Moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional
  • Non-finite: infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.
-ow
2nd sing.
-er
3rd sing.
-ɑt
-
1st plur.
-onow
2nd plur.
-oner
3rd plur.
-onɑt
-on

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

  • indicative: Ø
  • subjunctive: -iñ-
  • conditional: -ɑts-

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

  • infinitive: -ɑme
  • agentive participle: -ī́to
  • passive participle: -uki

The infinitival form is meant as a 2nd class noun.

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