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===Noun declension===
===Noun declension===
Nouns are declined in case and number with different models, depending on the last phoneme of the root.  
As already mentioned, the word root has a '''''(C)CV''''' structure. When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''.


Nouns, whose root ends in a consonant, are divided into two groups: ''non-palatal'' and ''palatal'' group. Both groups add a different ''thematic vowel'' in their declension. Nouns in the non-palatal group do also ''palatalize'' the last consonant of the root, if possible, in the plural forms.
Nouns do decline, according to their role in the sentence for '''case'''. They also distinguish three morphological numbers, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.
 
A nominal root is thus declined for case and number by adding the following morphemes:


{|-
{|-
| colspan="2" | ''Case morphemes''
|-
| style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''agentive''</small></center>  || style="width: 60px;"| '''-li'''
|-
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || '''-'''
|-
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || '''-ra'''
|-
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''-ʂu'''
|-
| <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''-χæ'''
|-
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''-kʰu'''
|-
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''-kʰæ'''
|-
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || '''-ŋil'''
|-
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''-ʈar'''
|-
|-
| style="width: 80px;"| || style="width: 80px;"| <center><small>''thematic vowel''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"| <center><small>''plural form''</small></center>
| colspan="2" | ''Numeral morphemes''
|-
|-
| <center><small>''non-palatal''</small></center> || <center>-e-</center> || <center>-‘e</center>
| <center><small>''singular''</small></center> || '''-'''
|-
|-
| <center><small>''palatal''</small></center> || <center>-i-</center> || <center>-i</center>
| <center><small>''plural''</small></center> || '''-no'''
|-
| <center><small>''dual''</small></center> || '''-ʔi'''
|}
|}


There is, however, a certain amount of irregular nouns, like some nouns which seemingly belong to the palatal group, while declining like a non-palatal noun, and vice versa.
In the pre-diasporic period, these morphemes are added to the root without a fixed pattern. Numeral morpheme can, indeed, be freely placed before or after the case morpheme.


Nouns, whose root ends in a vowel, change this last vowel. The general vowel changes are:
Some examples are shown below: a typical active or animate noun, '''papu''', ''father'', and a typical inactive or inanimate noun, '''soːŋo''', ''house''.


{|-
{|-
|-
|-
| style="width: 80px;"| <center>a → æ</center>
| || colspan="2" | <center>''Singular declension''</center>
|-
|-
| <center>æ → ‘e</center> || <small>(The last consonant of the root undergo palatalization, if possible)</small>
| style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"| '''papuli''' || style="width: 100px;"| '''-'''
|-
|-
| <center>‘e → ‘i</center> || <small>(The last consonant of the root undergo palatalization, if possible)</small>
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || '''papu''' || '''soːŋo'''
|-
|-
| <center>i → ‘i</center> || <small>(The last consonant of the root undergo palatalization, if possible)</small>
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || '''papura''' || '''-'''
|-
|-
| <center>o → ow</center> ||
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''papuʂu''' || '''soːŋoʂu'''
|-
|-
| <center>ow → u</center> ||  
| <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''papuχæ''' || '''soːŋoχæ''' 
|-
|-
| <center>u → ow</center> ||
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''papukʰu''' || '''soːŋokʰu''' 
|-
|-
| <center>y → u</center> ||
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''soːŋokʰæ''' 
|-
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''soːŋoŋil''' 
|-
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''soːŋoʈar''' 
|}
|}


Some nouns, conversely, display unpredictable irregularities in pluralization.
The endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun.
 
Nouns are also declined in case by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:


{|-
{|-
|-
|-
| style="width: 100px;"| <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"| -
| || colspan="4" | <center>''Plural declension''</center>
|-
|-
| <center><small>''obliquo''</small></center> || -vo
| ||<small>''precasual pattern''</small>||<small>''postcasual pattern''</small>||<small>''precasual pattern''</small>||<small>''postcasual pattern''</small>
|}
|--
 
| style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"| '''papunoli''' || style="width: 100px;"| '''papulino''' || style="width: 100px;"| '''-''' || style="width: 100px;"| '''-'''
Some examples of nouns, whose root ends in a consonant, are shown below: a noun belonging to the non-palatal group, towm, ''house'', and a noun belonging to the palatal group, l‘irs‘, ''plant''.
|-
{|-
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || '''papuno''' || '''papuno''' || '''soːŋono''' || '''soːŋono'''
|-
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || '''papunora''' || '''papurano''' || '''-''' || '''-'''
|-
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''papunoʂu''' || '''papuʂuno''' || '''soːŋonoʂu''' || '''soːŋoʂuno'''
|-
| <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''papunoχæ''' || '''papuχæno''' || '''soːŋonoχæ''' || '''soːŋoχæno'''
|-
|-
| || colspan="2" | <center>towm</center> || colspan="2" | <center>l‘irs‘</center>
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''papunokʰu''' || '''papukʰuno''' || '''soːŋonokʰu''' || '''soːŋokʰuno'''
|-
|-
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''-''' || '''soːŋonokʰæ''' || '''soːŋokʰæno'''
|-
|-
| <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || towm || towm‘e || l‘irs‘ || l‘irs‘i
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''-''' || '''soːŋonoŋil''' || '''soːŋoŋilno'''
|-
|-
| <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || towmevo || towm‘evo || l‘irs‘ivo || l‘irs‘ivo
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''-''' || '''soːŋonoʈar''' || '''soːŋoʈarno'''
|}
|}


As it can be noticed, nouns in the palatal group do not distinguish the singular from the plural form in the oblique case.
As in the singular declension, the endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun. The plural morpheme, '''-no''', can be placed either ''before'' or ''after'' the case morphemes, without a fixed pattern. In the pre-diasporic period the numeral morpheme position is essentially free and optional.


Some examples of nouns, whose root ends in a consonant, are shown below: cæšæ, ''lake'', and ðowmo, ''wheel''.
{|-
{|-
|-
|-
| || colspan="2" | <center>cæšæ</center> || colspan="2" | <center>ðowmo</center>
| || colspan="4" | <center>''Dual declension''</center>
|-
|-
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
| ||<small>''precasual pattern''</small>||<small>''postcasual pattern''</small>||<small>''precasual pattern''</small>||<small>''postcasual pattern''</small>
|--
| style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"| '''papuʔili''' || style="width: 100px;"| '''papuliʔi''' || style="width: 100px;"| '''-''' || style="width: 100px;"| '''-'''  
|-
|-
| <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || cæšæ || cæše || ðowmo || ðowmu
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || '''papuʔi''' || '''papuʔi''' || '''soːŋoʔi''' || '''soːŋoʔi'''
|-
|-
| <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || cæšævo || cæševo || ðowmovo || ðowmuvo
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || '''papuʔira''' || '''papuraʔi''' || '''-''' || '''-'''
|}
|-
 
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''papuʔiʂu''' || '''papuʂuʔi''' || '''soːŋoʔiʂu''' || '''soːŋoʂuʔi'''
An example of irregular nouns is shown below: mɛw, ''mouse''.
|-
{|-
| <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''papuʔiχæ''' || '''papuχæʔi''' || '''soːŋoʔiχæ''' || '''soːŋoχæʔi'''
|-
|-
| || colspan="2" | <center>mɛw</center>
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''papuʔikʰu''' || '''papukʰuʔi''' || '''soːŋoʔikʰu''' || '''soːŋokʰuʔi'''
|-
|-
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''-''' || '''soːŋoʔikʰæ''' || '''soːŋokʰæʔi'''
|-
|-
| <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || mɛw || m’ɛw
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''-''' || '''soːŋoʔiŋil''' || '''soːŋoŋilʔi'''
|-
|-
| <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || mɛwvo || m’ɛwvo
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''-''' || '''-''' || '''soːŋoʔiʈar''' || '''soːŋoʈarʔi'''
|}
|}
As in the singular declension, the endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun. The dual morpheme, '''-ʔi''', can be placed either ''before'' or ''after'' the case morphemes, without a fixed pattern. In the pre-diasporic period the numeral morpheme position is essentially free and optional.

Revision as of 02:44, 3 May 2025

Noun declension

As already mentioned, the word root has a (C)CV structure. When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-.

Nouns do decline, according to their role in the sentence for case. They also distinguish three morphological numbers, singular, dual, and plural.

A nominal root is thus declined for case and number by adding the following morphemes:

Case morphemes
agentive
 -li
passive
 -
genitive
 -ra
ablative
 -ʂu
terminative
 -χæ
causative
 -kʰu
instrumental
 -kʰæ
abessive
 -ŋil
locative
 -ʈar
Numeral morphemes
singular
 -
plural
 -no
dual
 -ʔi

In the pre-diasporic period, these morphemes are added to the root without a fixed pattern. Numeral morpheme can, indeed, be freely placed before or after the case morpheme.

Some examples are shown below: a typical active or animate noun, papu, father, and a typical inactive or inanimate noun, soːŋo, house.

Singular declension
agentive
 papuli -
passive
 papu soːŋo
genitive
 papura -
ablative
 papuʂu soːŋoʂu
terminative
 papuχæ soːŋoχæ
causative
 papukʰu soːŋokʰu
instrumental
 - soːŋokʰæ
abessive
 - soːŋoŋil
locative
 - soːŋoʈar

The endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun.

Plural declension
precasual pattern postcasual pattern precasual pattern postcasual pattern
agentive
 papunoli papulino - -
passive
 papuno papuno soːŋono soːŋono
genitive
 papunora papurano - -
ablative
 papunoʂu papuʂuno soːŋonoʂu soːŋoʂuno
terminative
 papunoχæ papuχæno soːŋonoχæ soːŋoχæno
causative
 papunokʰu papukʰuno soːŋonokʰu soːŋokʰuno
instrumental
 - - soːŋonokʰæ soːŋokʰæno
abessive
 - - soːŋonoŋil soːŋoŋilno
locative
 - - soːŋonoʈar soːŋoʈarno

As in the singular declension, the endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun. The plural morpheme, -no, can be placed either before or after the case morphemes, without a fixed pattern. In the pre-diasporic period the numeral morpheme position is essentially free and optional.

Dual declension
precasual pattern postcasual pattern precasual pattern postcasual pattern
agentive
 papuʔili papuliʔi - -
passive
 papuʔi papuʔi soːŋoʔi soːŋoʔi
genitive
 papuʔira papuraʔi - -
ablative
 papuʔiʂu papuʂuʔi soːŋoʔiʂu soːŋoʂuʔi
terminative
 papuʔiχæ papuχæʔi soːŋoʔiχæ soːŋoχæʔi
causative
 papuʔikʰu papukʰuʔi soːŋoʔikʰu soːŋokʰuʔi
instrumental
 - - soːŋoʔikʰæ soːŋokʰæʔi
abessive
 - - soːŋoʔiŋil soːŋoŋilʔi
locative
 - - soːŋoʔiʈar soːŋoʈarʔi

As in the singular declension, the endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun. The dual morpheme, -ʔi, can be placed either before or after the case morphemes, without a fixed pattern. In the pre-diasporic period the numeral morpheme position is essentially free and optional.

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