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===Noun declension===
===Noun declension===
Nouns are declined in case by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:
Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:
{|-
{|-
|-
|-
| style="width: 100px;"| <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"| -
| || colspan="2" | <center>''1<sup><small>st</small></sup> class''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class''</center>
|-
|-
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -rɛ
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
|-
|-
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -xjɛ
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -noli || ||
|-
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -no || - || -no
|-
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || -šu || -nošu || -šu || -nošu
|-
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ra || -nora || ||
|-
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -ɣɑ || -noɣɑ || -ɣɑ || -noɣɑ
|-
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -khu || -nokhu || -khu || -nokhu
|-
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || -khɑ || -nokhɑ
|-
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || -gil || -nogil
|-
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || -tsar || -notsar
|}
|}
 
Some examples are shown below: a 1<sup><small>st</small></sup> class noun, papu, ''father'', and a 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class noun, sṓgo, ''house''.
Nouns are also declined for number, with different models:
*The base form for the dual number is built by adding the ending -hiw:
 
suvɛ → suvɛhiw
<small>dog</small> → <small>two dogs</small>
 
*The base form for the plural number is built by changing the last vowel of the noun root. The general vowel changes are:
 
{|-
{|-
|-
|-
| style="width: 80px;"| <center>u → ū</center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center>ū → ū</center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center>ä → äw</center>
| || colspan="2" | <center>papu</center> || colspan="2" | <center>sṓgo</center>
|-
|-
| <center>o → ū</center> || <center>ō → ū</center> || <center>ö → ő</center>
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
|-
|-
| <center>i → ü</center> || <center>ī → ü</center> || <center>ő → őw</center>
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || papuli || papunoli || ||
|-
|-
| <center>ɛ → ö</center> || <center>ā → āw</center> || <center>ü → ü</center>
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || papu || papuno || sṓgo || sṓgono
|-
|-
| <center>a → o</center> || || <center>iw → ü</center>
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || papušu || papunošu || sṓgošu || sṓgonošu
|}
|-
 
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || papura || papunora || ||
As it can be noticed, nouns whose base form ends in -ū and -ü do not distinguish any different plural forms.
 
Case endings are added to these base forms.
 
Some examples are shown below: vɛvju, ''father'', and hő, ''woman''.
{|-
|-
|-
| || colspan="2" | <center>vɛvju</center> || colspan="2" | <center>hő</center>
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || papuɣɑ || papunoɣɑ || sṓgoɣɑ || sṓgonoɣɑ
|-
|-
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || papukhu || papunokhu || sṓgokhu || sṓgonokhu
|-
|-
| <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || vɛvju || vɛvjuhiw || vɛvjū || hő || hőhiw || hőw
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || sṓgokhɑ || sṓgonokhɑ
|-
|-
| <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || vɛvjurɛ || vɛvjuhiwrɛ || vɛvjūrɛ || hőrɛ || hőhiwrɛ || hőwrɛ
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || sṓgogil || sṓgonogil
|-
|-
| <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || vɛvjuxjɛ || vɛvjuhiwxjɛ || vɛvjūxjɛ || hőxjɛ || hőhiwxjɛ || hőwxjɛ
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || sṓgotsar || sṓgonotsar
|}
|}
 
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1<sup><small>st</small></sup> class noun, while the endings for the primary main cases cannot be added to a 2<sup><small>st</small></sup> class noun.
Nouns ending in a consonant in their base form, mostly loanwords, usually add a euphonic vowel before the endings of the other cases. This vowel is generally -u-, but other vowels are also possible. These added vowels undergo the regular pluralization process.

Revision as of 05:56, 2 May 2025

Noun declension

Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

1st class
2nd class
singular
plural
singular
plural
agentive
 -li -noli
passive
 - -no - -no
ablative
 -šu -nošu -šu -nošu
genitive
 -ra -nora
dative
 -ɣɑ -noɣɑ -ɣɑ -noɣɑ
causative
 -khu -nokhu -khu -nokhu
instrumental
 -khɑ -nokhɑ
abessive
 -gil -nogil
locative
 -tsar -notsar

Some examples are shown below: a 1st class noun, papu, father, and a 2nd class noun, sṓgo, house.

papu
sṓgo
singular
plural
singular
plural
agentive
 papuli papunoli
passive
 papu papuno sṓgo sṓgono
ablative
 papušu papunošu sṓgošu sṓgonošu
genitive
 papura papunora
dative
 papuɣɑ papunoɣɑ sṓgoɣɑ sṓgonoɣɑ
causative
 papukhu papunokhu sṓgokhu sṓgonokhu
instrumental
 sṓgokhɑ sṓgonokhɑ
abessive
 sṓgogil sṓgonogil
locative
 sṓgotsar sṓgonotsar

As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1st class noun, while the endings for the primary main cases cannot be added to a 2st class noun.

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