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{{main|Xowʂiko}}
{{main|Xowʂiko}}
This page gives an extensive description of '''Xowʂiko syntactical''' features.
This page gives an extensive description of '''Xowʂiko phonological''' features.
==Main clause and word order==
==Consonants==
Xowʂiko is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language.
The consonant system distinguishes 28 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:
   
{| class="wikitable"
hjyroli sopa ljyloç
|-
<small>the man sees the dog</small>
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center>
|-
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center>
|-
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>b</center> || <center>d</center> || <center>g</center>
|-
| <small>''palatal''</small> || <center>[c]</center> || || <center>[ɟ]</center> || <center>c</center> || || <center>ǰ</center>
|-
| colspan="2" | <small>''retroflex''</small> || <center>[ʈ]</center> || || <center>[ʂ]</center> || <center>ʈ</center> || || <center>ʂ</center>
|-
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center>
|-
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center>
|-
| rowspan="6" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> ||  
|-
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> ||
|-
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> ||
|-
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> ||
|-
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ç]</center> || || || <center>ç</center> ||
|-
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || <center>[w]</center> || <center>[ʎ]</center> || <center>j</center> || <center>w</center> || <center>ʎ</center>
|-
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> ||
|-
|}


The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''evidential construct''.
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal''.


sopa hjyroli ljyloç
The groups of the nasal and of the liquid consonants are slighty poorer, but anyway quite developed. The presence of a group of retroflex consonants, although limited to only two phonemes, [ʈ] and [ʂ], is noteworthy.
<small>it is the dog the man sees</small>


The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''after'' the direct object of the sentence.
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed and rich in points of articulation, but it displays no distinction between voiced and voiceless phonemes. The phonemes [j] and [w] can have both a semivocalic and a full consonantal value.


A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.
==Vowels==
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which display other forms of distinction:


sopaʂu ljyloçika qjysoh
2 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. Other vowels make no such distinction, but they differ in backness and height. The vowels [aː], [eː], and [oː] are only long. The vocalic system noticeably lacks a short *[a].
<small>I do not see the dog.</small>


Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.
{| class="wikitable"
 
|- style=max-width:4em
==Nouns==
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center>
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meanings to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.
|-
 
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center>
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.
|-
 
| colspan="2" | <center>[eː]</center> || || || colspan="2" | <center>[oː]</center> || colspan="2" | <center>ē</center> || || || colspan="2" | <center>ō</center>
hjyrora sowoli
|-
<small>the man’s house</small>
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || ||  ||  || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || ||
 
|-
xokoli lilajli
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[aː]</center> ||  || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ā</center> || ||
<small>my hand</small>
|}
 
xowpajli qownali
<small>the young woman</small>
 
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''.
 
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.
 
xowpajli hjyroli sowoŕä qimjeŕ
<small>the young man is going home</small>
 
xowpajnoli qownanoli
<small>the young women</small>
 
qownanoli xowpajnoli qäɳon
<small>the women are young</small>
 
qownanoli ljyloçukino qäɳon
<small>the women are seen</small>
 
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, in the earlier period, may not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.
 
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''prepositions'', which are placed before the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be introduced by a preposition.
 
qujm sowoŕä qimjeŕoh
<small>I am going inside the house</small>
 
=== The cases===
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles.
 
The cases in Xowʂiko language are 9:
*''Nominative''
*''Accusative''
*''Ablative''
*''Genitive''
*''Dative''
*''Causative''
*''Instrumental''
*''Abessive''
*''Locative''
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:

Revision as of 05:14, 26 August 2025

Main article: Xowʂiko

This page gives an extensive description of Xowʂiko phonological features.

Consonants

The consonant system distinguishes 28 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:

IPA
Transcription
plosive voiceless
[p]
[k]
[t]
p
k
t
voiced
[b]
[d]
[g]
b
d
g
palatal
[c]
[ɟ]
c
ǰ
retroflex
[ʈ]
[ʂ]
ʈ
ʂ
nasal
[m]
[n]
[ɲ]
m
n
ň
liquid
[r]
[l]
r
l
fricative velar
[x]
x
sibilant
[s]
s
alveolar
[ʃ]
š
glottal
[h]
h
palatal
[ç]
ç
approximant
[j]
[w]
[ʎ]
j
w
ʎ
affricate
[ʧ]
č

The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: voiceless, voiced, and palatal.

The groups of the nasal and of the liquid consonants are slighty poorer, but anyway quite developed. The presence of a group of retroflex consonants, although limited to only two phonemes, [ʈ] and [ʂ], is noteworthy.

The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed and rich in points of articulation, but it displays no distinction between voiced and voiceless phonemes. The phonemes [j] and [w] can have both a semivocalic and a full consonantal value.

Vowels

There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which display other forms of distinction:

2 vowels have a short form and a long form. Other vowels make no such distinction, but they differ in backness and height. The vowels [aː], [eː], and [oː] are only long. The vocalic system noticeably lacks a short *[a].

IPA
Transcription
[i]
[iː]
[u]
[uː]
i
ī
u
ū
[eː]
[oː]
ē
ō
[ɛ]
ɛ
[aː]
ā
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