User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII: Difference between revisions

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===Personal pronouns===
===Personal pronouns===
Personal pronouns feature a distinction between two forms for both cases.
The personal pronouns are:
 
For the direct case, the first form (<small>named ''direct<sub><small>1</small></sub>''</small>) is used as the subject of the clauses, for every kind of verbs. The second form (<small>named ''direct<sub><small>2</small></sub>''</small>) is used as the direct object of the clause, for transitive verbs, and with every preposition requiring the direct case.
 
Moreover, for the oblique case, the first form (<small>named ''oblique<sub><small>1</small></sub>''</small>) is used for most roles of the case, and with every preposition requiring the oblique case. The second form (<small>named ''oblique<sub><small>2</small></sub>''</small>) is used as the indirect object of the clause, without any preposition.


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{|-
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| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center>
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center>
|-
|-
| <center><small>''direct<sub><small>1</small></sub>''</small></center> || amex || k‘etex || okex || am‘ex || k‘et‘ex || ok‘ex
| <center><small>''nominative''</small></center> || amex || itex || okex || amēx || itēx || okēx
|-
|-
| <center><small>''direct<sub><small>2</small></sub>''</small></center> || am || k‘et || ok || am‘e || k‘et‘e || ok‘e
| <center><small>''accusative''</small></center> || ame || ite || oke || amē || itē || okē
|-
|-
| <center><small>''oblique<sub><small>1</small></sub>''</small></center> || amevo || k‘etevo || okevo || am‘evo || k‘et‘evo || ok‘evo
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || amefu || itefu || okefu || amēfu || itēfu || okēfu
|-
|-
| <center><small>''oblique<sub><small>2</small></sub>''</small></center> || amešo || k‘etešo || okešo || am‘ešo || k‘et‘ešo || ok‘ešo
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || amešu || itešu || okešu || amēšu || itēšu || okēšu
|}
 
There are, however, two possible forms for the second persons:
 
{|-
|-
|-
| | || colspan="2"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || colspan="2"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center>
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || ameho || iteho || okeho || amēho || itēho || okēho
|-
|-
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''standard''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''obsolete''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''standard''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''obsolete''</small></center>
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || okema || || || okēma
|-
|-
| <center><small>''direct<sub><small>1</small></sub>''</small></center>  || k‘etex || itex || k‘et‘ex || it‘ex
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || okeva || || || okēva
|-
| <center><small>''direct<sub><small>2</small></sub>''</small></center>  || k‘et || it || k‘et‘e || it‘e
|-
| <center><small>''oblique<sub><small>1</small></sub>''</small></center> || k‘etevo || itevo || k‘et‘evo || it‘evo
|-
| <center><small>''oblique<sub><small>2</small></sub>''</small></center>  || k‘etešo || itešo || k‘et‘ešo || it‘ešo
|}
|}


The alternative forms are regarded as obsolete and they are used in modern texts only in religious texts, in intentionally archaizing texts and in some set expressions. They may be also found in colloquial language, with a sense of solemnity or irony. It can be noticed that every speaker is well aware of these alternative forms, but their usage is steadily declining (<small>except in some peripheral dialect, where their usage can be prevailing over the standard forms</small>).
The forms for the genitive case cannot convey possession or belonging, conveying only other roles of such case. Either possession or belonging are conveyed through possessive adjectives.
 
The forms for the oblique<sub><small>2</small></sub> case can be used alone, without any prepositions, conveying the meaning of the indirect object. When used alone, the forms for the direct and indirect object tend to be placed before the conjugated verb in the sentence. Their positioning after the verb is regarded as a marked position.
 
Examples:
 
amex ok men ož
<small>I didn't see him</small>
 
amex men ož ok
<small>As for him, I didn't see him</small>


Anyway, these pronouns are placed after the negative adverb ož.
There are, moreover, some archaic forms for the personal pronouns, formed by the merging of ancient postpositions with the same pronouns. Their usage is increasingly regarded as obsolete both in spoken and written language.
* õžufə: ''with me, together with me''
* ižufə: ''with you, together with you''
* ɔžufə: ''with him/her/it, together with him/her/it''
* õmežufə: ''with us, together with us''
* idežufə: ''with you, together with you''
* ɔxežufə: ''with them, together with them''
* õβudə: ''from me, by me''
* iβudə: ''from you, by you''
* ɔβudə: ''from him/her/it, by him/her/it''
* õmeβudə: ''from us, by us''
* ideβudə: ''from you, by you''
* ɔxeβudə: ''from them, by them''

Revision as of 10:03, 10 July 2025

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns are:

1st sing.
2nd sing.
3rd sing.
1st plur.
2nd plur.
3rd plur.
nominative
 amex itex okex amēx itēx okēx
accusative
 ame ite oke amē itē okē
genitive
 amefu itefu okefu amēfu itēfu okēfu
dative
 amešu itešu okešu amēšu itēšu okēšu
ablative
 ameho iteho okeho amēho itēho okēho
instrumental
 okema okēma
locative
 okeva okēva

The forms for the genitive case cannot convey possession or belonging, conveying only other roles of such case. Either possession or belonging are conveyed through possessive adjectives.

There are, moreover, some archaic forms for the personal pronouns, formed by the merging of ancient postpositions with the same pronouns. Their usage is increasingly regarded as obsolete both in spoken and written language.

  • õžufə: with me, together with me
  • ižufə: with you, together with you
  • ɔžufə: with him/her/it, together with him/her/it
  • õmežufə: with us, together with us
  • idežufə: with you, together with you
  • ɔxežufə: with them, together with them
  • õβudə: from me, by me
  • iβudə: from you, by you
  • ɔβudə: from him/her/it, by him/her/it
  • õmeβudə: from us, by us
  • ideβudə: from you, by you
  • ɔxeβudə: from them, by them
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