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| ==Verbs== | | ===Interrogative pronouns=== |
| The verbal system of Xowʂiko language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the ''perfective root'' ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
| | Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: |
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| CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C
| | *<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-''' |
| | *<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-''' |
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| Example:
| | When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''. |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = wawok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = wowak-
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| In addition to vowels, diphthongs can also be switched:
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme''' |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = hjeqak- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = haqjek- | | <small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small> |
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| Rising diphthongs -je- and -jy- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:
| | When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''. |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = žemon- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ŕomjen- | | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi''' |
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> |
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| In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.
| | As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun. |
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| However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:
| | {|- |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = wäqimjeŕ- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = wäqjemiŕ-
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ʈäwehowr- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ʈewähowr-
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ŕäʈäwehek- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ŕäʈewähek-
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| Monosyllabic roots, like qäɳ-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (<small>or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective</small>). This rule may apply to some loanwords.
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| Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix qa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = wawok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = qawawok-
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| There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:
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| * ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional
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| * ''Non-finite'': infinitive, active participle, passive participle
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| The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ika, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.
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| The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-oh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-</center>
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| |-
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| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onoh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-on</center>
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| |}
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| The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
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| *''indicative'': Ø
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| *''subjunctive'': -iɳ-
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| *''conditional'': -oç-
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| The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.
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| As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.
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| The non-finite endings are:
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| *''infinitive'': -ika
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| *''agentive participle'': -jyto
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| *''passive participle'': -uki
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| The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class noun.
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| There is, moreover, a passive diathesis with an analytic-type construction, formed by the ver qäɳika, ''to be'', as an auxiliary verb, and the passive participle. It conveys the same modal, aspectual and temporal forms as the active diathesis.
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| === Conjugation of a regular verb ===
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| Example: śośirika, ''to take''
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| ====Active diathesis====
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| =====Indicative mood=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiroh</center> || <center>qaśośiroh</center> || <center>śiśoroh</center> || <center>qaśiśoroh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośirer</center> || <center>qaśośirer</center> || <center>śiśorer</center> || <center>qaśiśorer</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośir</center> || <center>qaśośir</center> || <center>śiśor</center> || <center>qaśiśor</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośironoh</center> || <center>qaśośironoh</center> || <center>śiśoronoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoronoh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośironer</center> || <center>qaśośironer</center> || <center>śiśoroner</center> || <center>qaśiśoroner</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiron</center> || <center>qaśośiron</center> || <center>śiśoron</center> || <center>qaśiśoron</center>
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| |}
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| The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.
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| =====Subjunctive mood=====
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| The subjunctive widely features the infix -iɳ-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳoh</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳoh</center> || <center>śiśoriɳoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳoh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳer</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳer</center> || <center>śiśoriɳer</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳer</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳ</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳ</center> || <center>śiśoriɳ</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳ</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳonoh</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳonoh</center> || <center>śiśoriɳonoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳonoh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳoner</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳoner</center> || <center>śiśoriɳoner</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳoner</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiriɳon</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳon</center> || <center>śiśoriɳon</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳon</center>
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| |}
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| The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.
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| =====Conditional mood=====
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| The conditional widely features the infix -oç-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.
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| {| class="wikitable" | |
| |-
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| | || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
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| |- | |
| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçoh</center> || <center>qaśośiroçoh</center> || <center>śiśoroçoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçoh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçer</center> || <center>qaśośiroçer</center> || <center>śiśoroçer</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçer</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>śośiroç</center> || <center>qaśośiroç</center> || <center>śiśoroç</center> || <center>qaśiśoroç</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçonoh</center> || <center>qaśośiroçonoh</center> || <center>śiśoroçonoh</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçonoh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçoner</center> || <center>qaśośiroçoner</center> || <center>śiśoroçoner</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçoner</center>
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| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>śośiroçon</center> || <center>qaśośiroçon</center> || <center>śiśoroçon</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçon</center> | | | || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center> |
| |}
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| The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.
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| For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).
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| ====Non-finite forms====
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| The non-finite verbal forms are:
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| =====Infinitive=====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 170px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center> | | | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>śośirika</center> || <center>śośiriɳika</center> || <center>śośiroçika</center> | | | <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>qaśośirika</center> || <center>qaśośiriɳika</center> || <center>qaśośiroçika</center> | | | <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>śiśorika</center> || <center>śiśoriɳika</center> || <center>śiśoroçika</center> | | | <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>qaśiśorika</center> || <center>qaśiśoriɳika</center> || <center>qaśiśoroçika</center> | | | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| |} | | | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo''' |
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| The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as a 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class noun.
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| In its subjunctive form it is often used in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.
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| Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.
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| =====Participle=====
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| There are two participial forms, the ''agentive participle'' and the ''passive participle''. Both participles have an imperfective and a perfective form, respectively built on the ''imperfective root'' and on the ''perfective root'', and they have a present and a past form, this last formed through the augment.
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| The '''agentive participle''' is formed through the ending -īdu, while the '''passive participle''' through the ending -jugiw / -ugiw.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |- | | |- |
| | || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
| | | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
| | | <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>agentive</small>'' || <center>gɛgugīdu</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugīdu</center> || <center>gugɛgīdu</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgīdu</center> | | | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma''' |
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| | ''<small>passive</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjugiw</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjugiw</center> || <center>gugɛgjugiw</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjugiw</center> | |
| |- | | |- |
| | | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa''' |
| |} | | |} |
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| The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. It is often used to build relative clauses. As an adjectival form it thus displays a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes, but agreeing with its adjoining noun. | | The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case: |
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| The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses.
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| The passive participle suffix displays two possible forms, -jugiw or -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ugiw. The latter form is used after some consonants, palatalizing them, or is used after already palatalized consonants, without any further effect.
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| cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎugiw
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| <small>to say → said</small>
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| lilušiwgɛ → lilušugiw
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| <small>to see → seen</small>
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| ===Negation===
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| The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb qjysika. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.
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| Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''indicative infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.
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| sopali hjyro qaňymac → sopali hjyroʂu ňymacika qaqjys
| | * '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>) |
| <small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small>
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>) |
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| sopali ʎehon → sopali ʎehonika qjys
| | These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns: |
| <small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small>
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| ''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb. | | * '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>) |
