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| ==Verbs== | | ===Interrogative pronouns=== |
| The verbal system of Biwdiw language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the ''perfective root'' ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
| | Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: |
|
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| CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C
| | *<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-''' |
| | *<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-''' |
|
| |
|
| Example:
| | When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''. |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gɛgug- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gugɛg-
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| In addition to vowels, the diphthongs -jɛ-, -ju- and -iw- can be switched:
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme''' |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = čiwgul- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = čugiwl-
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small> |
|
| |
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| Rising diphthongs -jɛ- and -ju- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:
| | When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''. |
|
| |
|
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = cɛgil- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ʈigjɛl- | | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi''' |
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> |
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| In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.
| | As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun. |
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| However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:
| | {|- |
| | |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = hūgāsus- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = hūgusās-
| |
| | |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ʂēhiwšōr- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ʂiwhēšōr-
| |
| | |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = xjɛcɛgilig- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = xjɛʈigjɛlig-
| |
| | |
| Monosyllabic roots, like çɛň-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (<small>or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective</small>). This rule may apply to some loanwords.
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| | |
| Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix hɛ-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.
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| | |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gɛgug- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = hɛgɛgug-
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| There are also three analytic verbal forms, compound tenses with the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', and an infinitival form: an imperfective future, a perfect resultative and a plusquamperfect resultative.
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| | |
| There are four verbal moods and three non-finite forms:
| |
| * ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, optative, potential
| |
| * ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle
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| | |
| The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -iwgɛ, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.
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| | |
| The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-oh</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onoh</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-on</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person, one of the endings displays two possible forms, -jɛc or -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛc. After some consonants this ending appears as -ɛc, and palatalizes the previous consonant, or it is added to an already palatalized consonant without further effects.
| |
| | |
| cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎɛc
| |
| <small>to say → he/she/it says</small>
| |
| | |
| lilušiwgɛ → lilušɛc
| |
| <small>to see → he/she/it sees</small>
| |
| | |
| The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
| |
| | |
| *''indicative'': Ø
| |
| *''subjunctive'': -iwň-
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| *''optative'': -uš-
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| *''potential'': -jɛʈ- / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛʈ-
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| | |
| The potential mood infix displays the same irregularities as the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending and it follows the same rules. All modal infixes merge with the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending:
| |
| *-iwň- + -jɛc = -iwňɛc
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| *-uš- + -jɛc = -ušɛc
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| *-jɛʈ- + -jɛc = -jɛcɛc
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| | |
| The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.
| |
| | |
| As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.
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| | |
| The non-finite endings are:
| |
| *''infinitive'': -iwgɛ
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| *''agentive participle'': -īdu
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| *''passive participle'': -jugiw- / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ugiw-
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| The passive participle ending displays the same irregularities as the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending and it follows the same rules.
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| The infinitival form is meant as a class II noun.
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| | |
| === Conjugation of a regular verb ===
| |
| Example: gɛgugiwgɛ, ''to bring''
| |
| | |
| ====Indicative mood====
| |
| Four tenses are simple:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable" | |
| |-
| |
| | || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
| |
| |- | |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
| |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugū</center> || <center>gugɛgū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgū</center> | | | || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugir</center> || <center>gugɛgir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgir</center> | | | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛc<sup><small>1</sup></small></center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛc<sup><small>1</sup></small></center> || <center>gugɛgjɛc<sup><small>1</sup></small></center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛc<sup><small>1</sup></small></center> | | | <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center>gɛgug<sup><small>2</sup></small></center> || <center>hɛgɛgug<sup><small>2</sup></small></center> || <center>gugɛg<sup><small>2</sup></small></center> || <center>hɛgugɛg<sup><small>2</sup></small></center> | | | <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwhū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwhū</center> || <center>gugɛgiwhū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwhū</center> | | | <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwhir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwhir</center> || <center>gugɛgiwhir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwhir</center> | | | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwcɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgiwcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwcɛc</center> | | | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center>gɛgugiwh</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwh</center> || <center>gugɛgiwh</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwh</center> | | | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugunū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugunū</center> || <center>gugɛgunū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgunū</center> | | | <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugunir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugunir</center> || <center>gugɛgunir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgunir</center> | | | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugunjɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugunjɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgunjɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgunjɛc</center> | | | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa''' |
| |- | |
| | <center>gɛgugun</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugun</center> || <center>gugɛgun</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgun</center> | |
| |} | | |} |
|
| |
|
| *<sup>1</sup> this form tends to display irregularities in several verbs:
| | The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case: |
| | |
| cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎɛc
| |
| <small>to say → he/she/it says</small>
| |
| | |
| lilušiwgɛ → lilušɛc
| |
| <small>to see → he/she/it sees</small>
| |
| | |
| *<sup>2</sup> this form tends to display irregularities in several verbs:
| |
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| čiwguliwgɛ → čiwgū
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| <small>to come → he/she/it comes</small>
| |
| | |
| There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:
| |
| *''Imperfective future'': forms of the indicative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| *''Resultative present'': forms of the indicative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
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| *''Resultative past'': forms of the indicative past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>imperfective future</small>''</center> || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>resultative present</small>''</center> || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>resultative past</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çɛň gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çeňiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çeňiwh gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňunū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňunir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çɛňun gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Subjunctive mood====
| |
| The subjunctive widely features the infix -iwň-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings. | |
| | |
| Four tenses are simple:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňū</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňir</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛgugiwň</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwň</center> || <center>gugɛgiwň</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwň</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňiwhū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňiwhū</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňiwhū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňiwhū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňiwhir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňiwhir</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňiwhir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňiwhir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňiwcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňiwcɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňiwcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňiwcɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛgugiwňiwh</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňiwh</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňiwh</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňiwh</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňunū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňunū</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňunū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňunū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňunir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňunir</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňunir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňunir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwňunjɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňunjɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňunjɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňunjɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛgugiwňun</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňun</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňun</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňun</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Forms of the simple tenses in the subjunctive mood usually do not display other irregularities.
| |
| | |
| There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:
| |
| *''Imperfective future'': forms of the subjunctive present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| *''Resultative present'': forms of the subjunctive present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| *''Resultative past'': forms of the subjunctive past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>imperfective future</small>''</center> || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>resultative present</small>''</center> || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>resultative past</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwňū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwňir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwňɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çɛňiwň gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwň hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwňiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çeňiwňiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwňiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çeňiwňiwh gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwňunū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwňunir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňiwňunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çɛňiwňun gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňiwňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňiwňun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Optative mood====
| |
| The optative widely features the infix -uš-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.
| |
| | |
| Four tenses are simple:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušū</center> || <center>gugɛgušū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušir</center> || <center>gugɛgušir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgušɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛguguš</center> || <center>hɛgɛguguš</center> || <center>gugɛguš</center> || <center>hɛgugɛguš</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušiwhū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušiwhū</center> || <center>gugɛgušiwhū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušiwhū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušiwhir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušiwhir</center> || <center>gugɛgušiwhir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušiwhir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušiwcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušiwcɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgušiwcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušiwcɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛgugušiwh</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušiwh</center> || <center>gugɛgušiwh</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušiwh</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušunū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušunū</center> || <center>gugɛgušunū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušunū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušunir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušunir</center> || <center>gugɛgušunir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušunir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugušunjɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušunjɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgušunjɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušunjɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛgugušun</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušun</center> || <center>gugɛgušun</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušun</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Forms of the simple tenses in the optative mood usually do not display other irregularities.
| |
| | |
| There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:
| |
| *''Imperfective future'': forms of the optative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| *''Resultative present'': forms of the optative present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| *''Resultative past'': forms of the optative past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>imperfective future</small>''</center> || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>resultative present</small>''</center> || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>resultative past</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňušū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňušir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňušɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çɛňuš gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňuš hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňuš hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çɛňušiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çeňušiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çɛňušiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çeňušiwh gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňušunū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňušunir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňušunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çɛňušun gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňušun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňušun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Potential mood====
| |
| The potential widely features the infix -jɛʈ- (or its palatalizing version, -ɛʈ-), which is placed between the roots and the personal endings.
| |
| | |
| Four tenses are simple:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛʈū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈū</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛʈir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈir</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛcɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛcɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛgugjɛʈ</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈ</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈ</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛʈiwhū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwhū</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈiwhū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwhū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛʈiwhir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwhir</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈiwhir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwhir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛʈiwcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwcɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈiwcɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwcɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛgugjɛʈiwh</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwh</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈiwh</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwh</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛʈunū</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈunū</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈunū</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈunū</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛʈunir</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈunir</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈunir</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈunir</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjɛʈunjɛc</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈunjɛc</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈunjɛc</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈunjɛc</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>gɛgugjɛʈun</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈun</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈun</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈun</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Forms of the simple tenses in the potential mood usually do not display other irregularities.
| |
| | |
| There are, moreover, three compound tenses. They are formed:
| |
| *''Imperfective future'': forms of the potential present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the imperfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| *''Resultative present'': forms of the potential present of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| *''Resultative past'': forms of the potential past of the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', with the perfective present infinitive of the conjugated verb.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>imperfective future</small>''</center> || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>resultative present</small>''</center> || style="width: 210px;"| <center>''<small>resultative past</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛʈū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛʈir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çɛňɛʈ gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈ hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈ hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛʈiwhū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈiwhū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çeňɛʈiwhir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈiwhir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛʈiwcɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈiwcɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çeňɛʈiwh gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈiwh hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛʈunū gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈunū hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛʈunir gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈunir hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>çɛňɛʈunjɛc gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈunjɛc hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>çɛňɛʈun gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>çɛňɛʈun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛçɛňɛʈun hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The potential infix displays two possible forms, -jɛʈ or -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛʈ. The latter form is used after some consonants, palatalizing them, or is used after already palatalized consonants, without any further effect. It merges with the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person ending, palatalizing -ʈ into -c.
| |
| | |
| ====Non-finite forms====
| |
| The non-finite verbal forms are:
| |
| | |
| =====Infinitive=====
| |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>optative</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>potential</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>gɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>gɛgugiwňiwgɛ</center> || <center>gɛgugušiwgɛ</center> || <center>gɛgugjɛʈiwgɛ</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>hɛgɛgugiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugiwňiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugušiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjɛʈiwgɛ</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>gugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>gugɛgiwňiwgɛ</center> || <center>gugɛgušiwgɛ</center> || <center>gugɛgjɛʈiwgɛ</center>
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| | ''<small>imp. past</small>'' || <center>hɛgugɛgiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgiwňiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgušiwgɛ</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjɛʈiwgɛ</center>
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| |}
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| The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as a class II noun.
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| In its verbal function is usually used as object or subject of other verbs. It is the only non-finite form which has modal forms.
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| Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.
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| =====Participle=====
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| There are two participial forms, the ''agentive participle'' and the ''passive participle''. Both participles have an imperfective and a perfective form, respectively built on the ''imperfective root'' and on the ''perfective root'', and they have a present and a past form, this last formed through the augment.
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| The '''agentive participle''' is formed through the ending -īdu, while the '''passive participle''' through the ending -jugiw / -ugiw.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center>
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| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>agentive</small>'' || <center>gɛgugīdu</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugīdu</center> || <center>gugɛgīdu</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgīdu</center>
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| | ''<small>passive</small>'' || <center>gɛgugjugiw</center> || <center>hɛgɛgugjugiw</center> || <center>gugɛgjugiw</center> || <center>hɛgugɛgjugiw</center>
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| |}
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| The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. It is often used to build relative clauses. As an adjectival form it thus displays a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes, but agreeing with its adjoining noun.
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| The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses.
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| The passive participle suffix displays two possible forms, -jugiw or -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ugiw. The latter form is used after some consonants, palatalizing them, or is used after already palatalized consonants, without any further effect.
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| cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎugiw
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| <small>to say → said</small>
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| lilušiwgɛ → lilušugiw
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| <small>to see → seen</small>
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| ===Negation===
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| The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb qjysika. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.
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| Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''indicative infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.
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| sopali hjyro qaňymac → sopali hjyroʂu ňymacika qaqjys
| | * '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>) |
| <small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small>
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>) |
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| sopali ʎehon → sopali ʎehonika qjys
| | These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns: |
| <small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small>
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| ''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb. | | * '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>) |
