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| {{main|Xowʂiko}}
| | ===Interrogative pronouns=== |
| This page gives an extensive description of '''Xowʂiko morphological''' features.
| | Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: |
| ==Nouns== | |
| Nouns in Xowʂiko language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ä-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.
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| Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or first class and inanimate nouns or second class. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:
| | *<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-''' |
| *'''1<sup><small>st</small></sup> class''': human beings, animals, deities | | *<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-''' |
| *'''2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions
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| A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.
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| For example, the word säɳo, ''sun'', shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, as the noun qacow, ''wind'', depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree.
| | When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''. |
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| Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme''' |
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small> |
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| There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''' and '''plural'''.
| | When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''. |
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| ===Cases===
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi''' |
| Kī́rtako nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''9 cases''':
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> |
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| {| class="wikitable"
| | As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun. |
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| | style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center>
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| | '''Nominative''' || <small>This case marks the subject of a verb</small>
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| |-
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| | '''Accusative''' || <small>This case marks the direct object of a verb. It is also used with some postpositions. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and as its citation form. It is also used as the vocative form.</small>
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| | '''Ablative''' || <small>This case marks primarily a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, ''body parts''), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging. It also marks the point of origin of a movement (''motion from a place''). It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb.</small>
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| | '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1<sup>st</sup> class.</small>
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| | '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. It can also mark the final point of a movement (''motion toward a place''), and, in a broad sense, the final purpose of an action or a state.</small>
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| | '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small>
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| | '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small>
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| | '''Abessive''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small>
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| | '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small>
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| |}
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| The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:
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| #''Main cases'': nominative, accusative
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| #''Primary oblique cases'': ablative, dative, causative
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| #''Secondary oblique cases'': genitive
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| #''Tertiary oblique cases'': instrumental, abessive, locative
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| Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''prepositions'', which can select one or more cases.
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| ===Noun declension===
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| Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:
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| {|-
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| | || colspan="2" | <center>''1<sup><small>st</small></sup> class''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class''</center>
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| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
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| | <center><small>''nominative''</small></center> || -li || -noli || -li || -noli
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| | <center><small>''accusative''</small></center> || - || -no || - || -no
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| | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || -ʂu || -noʂu || -ʂu || -noʂu
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| | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ra || -nora || ||
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| | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -ŕä || -noŕä || -ŕä || -noŕä
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| | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -ɣu || -noɣu || -ɣu || -noɣu
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| | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || -ɣä || -noɣä
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| | <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || -wil<sup><small>1</small></sup> || -nowil
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || -ʈar || -noʈar
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| |}
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| <small><sup>1</sup>This ending changes into -il, when added to a noun ending in -w.</small>
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| Some examples are shown below: a 1<sup><small>st</small></sup> class noun, papu, ''father'', and a 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> class noun, sowo, ''house''.
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| {|- | | {|- |
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| | || colspan="2" | <center>papu</center> || colspan="2" | <center>sowo</center> | | | || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> | | | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> |
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| | <center><small>''nominative''</small></center> || papuli || papunoli || sowoli || sowonoli | | | <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə''' |
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| | <center><small>''accusative''</small></center> || papu || papuno || sowo || sowono | | | <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej''' |
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| | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || papuʂu || papunošu || sowo || sowo | | | <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu''' |
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| | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || papura || papunora || || | | | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu''' |
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| | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || papuŕä || papunoŕä || sowoŕä || sowonoŕä | | | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo''' |
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| | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || papuɣu || papunoɣu || sowoɣu || sowonoɣu | | | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno''' |
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| | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || sowoɣä || sowonoɣä | | | <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə''' |
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| | <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || sowowil || sowonowil | | | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma''' |
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| | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || sowoʈar || sowonoʈar | | | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa''' |
| |} | | |} |
| As for the rules, the endings for the tertiary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1<sup><small>st</small></sup> class noun, while the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 2<sup><small>st</small></sup> class noun.
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| ==Adjectives and pronouns==
| | The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case: |
| Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.
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| ===Adjectives===
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| Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.
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| xowpajli hjyroli
| | * '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>) |
| <small>(the) young man</small>
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>) |
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| hjyroli xowpajli qäɳ
| | These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns: |
| <small>(the) man is young</small>
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| All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.
| | * '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>) |
| | | * '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| xowpajra hjyrora rjeqoli sowoli piwkoʈar häciʈar mjeqis
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| <small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small>
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| ====Declension of qualifying adjectives====
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| Example: rjeqo, ''new''
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| {|-
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| | || colspan="2" | <center>rḗʔo</center>
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| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
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| | <center><small>''nominative''</small></center> || rjeqoli || rjeqonoli
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| | <center><small>''accusative''</small></center> || rjeqo || rjeqono
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| | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || rjeqoʂu || rjeqonoʂu
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| | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || rjeqora || rjeqonora
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| | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || rjeqoŕä || rjeqonoŕä
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| | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || rjeqoɣu || rjeqonoɣu
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| | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || rjeqoɣä || rjeqonoɣä
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| | <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || rjeqowil || rjeqonowil
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| | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || rjeqoʈar || rjeqonoʈar
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| |}
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