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| ==Pronouns== | | ===Interrogative pronouns=== |
| In the archaic period, pronouns are regarded as grammatical root, without an actual semantic meaning and only as grammatical referents. Their structure is thus usually '''(C)V(C)'''. However, in a later pre-diasporic period, most pronominal roots are expanded to a disyllabic noun-type root, usually through the morphemes '''-tu''' and '''-lo'''.
| | Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: |
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| ===Personal pronouns===
| | *<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-''' |
| Personal pronouns convey only the first two persons (1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup>) without any distinction in number.
| | *<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-''' |
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| Both the first and the second person have indeed two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; the first forms convey the agentive case, and the second forms convey the passive case, the only cases originally conveyed by the personal pronoun.
| | When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''. |
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| {|-
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme''' |
| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup><small>st</small></sup> person''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person''</small></center>
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small> |
| |-
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| | <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬ'''</center> || <center>'''er'''</center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || <center>'''jo'''</center> || <center>'''næ'''</center>
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| |}
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| These form are used in a very earlier period, when the basic word order is still VSO. Later they show a marked tendency to cliticization to the verbal form. Thus, new agentive forms for the personal pronouns arise, by expanding the original roots with the morpheme '''-tu'''. The passive forms are usually not expanded, likely because they already have a '''CV''' syllabic structure.
| | When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''. |
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| {|-
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi''' |
| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup><small>st</small></sup> person''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person''</small></center>
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> |
| |-
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| | <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtu'''</center> || <center>'''ertu'''</center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || <center>'''jo'''</center> || <center>'''næ'''</center>
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| |}
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| Sulla base di queste radici vengono in seguito formati gli altri casi. Non esiste accordo su quale radice eteroclita scegliere per aggiungere i morfemi di caso, perciò, si ritiene che rimanga sostanzialmente libera durante tutto il periodo unitario. As these pronouns intrinsically refer to a semantically animate noun, the endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to these roots.
| | As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun. |
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| {|- | | {|- |
| | || colspan="2" | <center>''Singular declension''</center>
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| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''1<sup><small>st</small></sup> person''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person''</small></center> | | | || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtu'''</center> || <center>'''ertu'''</center> | | | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || <center>'''jo'''</center> || <center>'''næ'''</center> | | | <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtura<br>jora'''</center> || <center>'''ertura<br>næra'''</center> | | | <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtuʂu<br>joʂu'''</center> || <center>'''ertuʂu<br>næʂu'''</center> | | | <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtuχæ<br>joχæ'''</center> || <center>'''ertuχæ<br>næχæ'''</center> | | | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtukʰu<br>jokʰu'''</center> || <center>'''ertukʰu<br>nækʰu'''</center> | | | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> | | | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> | | | <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> | | | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma''' |
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| | | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa''' |
| |} | | |} |
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| As in the nominal declension, both the plural morpheme, '''-no''', and the dual morpheme, '''-ʔi''', can be freely placed either ''before'' or ''after'' the case morphemes, without a fixed pattern. In the pre-diasporic period the numeral morpheme position is essentially free and optional.
| | The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case: |
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| {|-
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| | || colspan="4" | <center>''Plural declension''</center>
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| | || colspan="2"| <center><small>''1<sup><small>st</small></sup> person''</small></center> || colspan="2"| <center><small>''2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person''</small></center>
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| | <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || colspan="2"| <center>'''oɬtuno'''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>'''ertuno'''</center>
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| | <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || colspan="2"| <center>'''jono'''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>'''næno'''</center>
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| | style="width: 100px;"| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"| <center>'''oɬtunora<br>jonora'''</center> || style="width: 100px;"| <center>'''oɬturano<br>jorano'''</center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center>'''ertunora<br>nænora'''</center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center>'''erturano<br>nærano'''</center>
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| | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtunoʂu<br>jonoʂu'''</center> || <center>'''oɬtuʂuno<br>joʂuno'''</center> || <center>'''ertunoʂu<br>nænoʂu'''</center> || <center>'''ertuʂuno<br>næʂuno'''</center>
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| | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtunoχæ<br>jonoχæ'''</center> || <center>'''oɬtuχæno<br>joχæno'''</center> || <center>'''ertunoχæ<br>nænoχæ'''</center> || <center>'''ertuχæno<br>næχæno'''</center>
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| | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtunokʰu<br>jonokʰu'''</center> || <center>'''oɬtukʰuno<br>jokʰuno'''</center> || <center>'''ertunokʰu<br>nænokʰu'''</center> || <center>'''ertukʰuno<br>nækʰuno'''</center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center>
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| |}
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| {|-
| | * '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>) |
| | || colspan="4" | <center>''Dual declension''</center>
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| |-
| | * '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>) |
| | || colspan="2"| <center><small>''1<sup><small>st</small></sup> person''</small></center> || colspan="2"| <center><small>''2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || colspan="2"| <center>'''oɬtuʔi'''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>'''ertuʔi'''</center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || colspan="2"| <center>'''joʔi'''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>'''næʔi'''</center>
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| | style="width: 100px;"| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"| <center>'''oɬtuʔira<br>joʔira'''</center> || style="width: 100px;"| <center>'''oɬturaʔi<br>joraʔi'''</center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center>'''ertuʔira<br>næʔira'''</center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center>'''erturaʔi<br>næraʔi'''</center>
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| | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtuʔiʂu<br>joʔiʂu'''</center> || <center>'''oɬtuʂuʔi<br>joʂuʔi'''</center> || <center>'''ertuʔiʂu<br>næʔiʂu'''</center> || <center>'''ertuʂuʔi<br>næʂuʔi'''</center>
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| | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtuʔiχæ<br>joʔiχæ'''</center> || <center>'''oɬtuχæʔi<br>joχæʔi'''</center> || <center>'''ertuʔiχæ<br>næʔiχæ'''</center> || <center>'''ertuχæʔi<br>næχæʔi'''</center>
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| | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || <center>'''oɬtuʔikʰu<br>joʔikʰu'''</center> || <center>'''oɬtukʰuʔi<br>jokʰuʔi'''</center> || <center>'''ertuʔikʰu<br>næʔikʰu'''</center> || <center>'''ertukʰuʔi<br>nækʰuʔi'''</center>
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| | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center> || <center>'''-'''</center>
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| |}
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| | These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns: |
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| Le forme di genitivo e di ablativo ricoprono, secondo il loro significato, il ruolo degli aggettivi e dei pronomi possessivi.
| | * '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>) |
Interrogative pronouns
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:
- quality: ṫjejm-
- quantity: sjowp-
When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-.
ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -e- → ṫjejme
interr. → what?, who?
When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-.
ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -i- → ṫjejmi
interr. → which?
As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.
|
who? / what? |
how much? / how many?
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singular |
plural |
singular |
plural
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| ergative |
ṫjejmek̇ə |
ṫjejmejk̇ə |
sjowpek̇ə |
sjowpejk̇ə
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| absolutive |
ṫjejme |
ṫjejmej |
sjowpe |
sjowpej
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| possessive |
ṫjejmeṗu |
ṫjejmejṗu |
sjowpeṗu |
sjowpejṗu
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| terminative |
ṫjejmeʈu |
ṫjejmejʈu |
sjowpeʈu |
sjowpejʈu
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| ablative |
ṫjejmeʡo |
ṫjejmejʡo |
sjowpeʡo |
sjowpejʡo
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| causative |
ṫjejmeno |
ṫjejmejno |
sjowpeno |
sjowpejno
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| benefactive |
ṫjejmepə |
ṫjejmejpə |
sjowpepə |
sjowpejpə
|
| instrumental |
ṫjejmema |
ṫjejmejma |
sjowpema |
sjowpejma
|
| locative |
ṫjejmewa |
ṫjejmejwa |
sjowpewa |
sjowpejwa
|
The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:
- ṫjejmewa: where (static location)
- ṫjejmeʈu: where (motion toward)
- ṫjejmeno : why (cause)
These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:
- ṫjejmewa weʡewa: in which place (static location)
- ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu: in which place (motion toward)
