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| ===Conjugation of a regular verb=== | | ===Interrogative pronouns=== |
| Sample verb: sōsunem, ''to confuse''
| | Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: |
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| ====Indicative mood====
| | *<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-''' |
| | *<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-''' |
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| |
|
| =====Present tense=====
| | When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''. |
| The '''present''' is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the present root:
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|
| {| class="wikitable"
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme''' |
| |-
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small> |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 140px;"| <center>sōsunow</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunər</center>
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| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsuneš</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsun</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunohi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunəri</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsuneši</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsuni</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunohon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunəron</center>
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| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunešon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| In the short form of the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, which features the ''null ending'', irregularities may often occur, like an alteration of the last root consonant:
| |
| | |
| uligem → ulik
| |
| <small>to die → he/she/it dies</small> | |
| | |
| The present tense conveys ongoing, habitual or gnomic actions or states.
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| | |
| =====Preterite tense=====
| |
| The '''preterite''' is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the preterite root:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 140px;"| <center>asusōnow</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōnər</center>
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| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōneš</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōn</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnohi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnəri</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōneši</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōni</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnohon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnəron</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnešon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōnon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| In the short form of the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, which features the ''null ending'', irregularities may often occur, like an alteration of the last root consonant (<small>basically the same alteration as in the present tense</small>):
| |
| | |
| uligem → eluk
| |
| <small>to die → he/she/it died</small>
| |
| | |
| The preterite tense conveys completed, ongoing or habitual actions or states in the past, without any influence on the present.
| |
| | |
| =====Perfect tense=====
| |
| The '''perfect''' is a simple tense. The infix -ag- and the personal endings are added to the present root:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 140px;"| <center>sōsunow</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunagər</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunageš</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunag</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunagohi</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunagəri</center>
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| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunageši</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunagi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunagohon</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunagəron</center>
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| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunagešon</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunagon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The perfect tense conveys actions or states which have taken place in the past, but which still can have an influence on the present. It also may convey an action or a state which have begun in the past but it is still ongoing in the present.
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| | |
| =====Plusquamperfect tense=====
| |
| The '''plusquamperfect''' is a compound tense. The infix -ag- and the personal endings are added to the past root:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 140px;"| <center>asusōnagow</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōnagər</center>
| |
| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōnageš</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōnag</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnagohi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnagəri</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnageši</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōnagi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnagohon</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnagəron</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnagešon</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōnon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The plusquamperfect tense conveys actions or states which had taken place before another past action or state, but which still had an influence on that time. It also may convey an action or a state which had begun in the past but it is still ongoing during another past action or state.
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| | |
| =====Future tense=====
| |
| The '''future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the present secondary infinitive of the conjugated verb and the indicative present forms of the verb imēhem, ''to go'':
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 180px;"| <center>sōsuniga imēhow</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhər</center>
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| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēheš</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsuniga imēh</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhohi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhəri</center>
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| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēheši</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsuniga imēhi</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhohon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhəron</center>
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| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhešon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsuniga imēhon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The future tense conveys actions or states which will be completed, habitual or ongoing in the future.
| |
| | |
| =====Anterior future tense=====
| |
| The '''anterior future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the preterite secondary infinitive of the conjugated verb and the indicative present forms of the verb imēhem, ''to go'':
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 180px;"| <center>asusōniga imēhow</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhər</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēheš</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōniga imēh</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhohi</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhəri</center>
| |
| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēheši</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōniga imēhi</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhohon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhəron</center>
| |
| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhešon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōniga imēhon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| The anterior future tense conveys actions or states which will take place before another future action or state, but which will still have an influence on that time. It also may convey an action or a state which will begin in the past of a future moment but it will be still ongoing during another future action or state.
| | When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''. |
|
| |
|
| ====Subjunctive mood====
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi''' |
| The '''subjunctive''' mood is mostly used in dependent clauses, with several usages. Its usage in main clauses is quite limited, except for its role as an imperative form. It can also convey exhortation, desire, and wish.
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> |
|
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|
| The subjunctive widely features the infix -oč-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings. In the perfect and plusquamperfect tenses, it is added before the infix -ag-. However, the subjunctive lacks both future and anterior future tenses, replaced by their indicative counterparts.
| | As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun. |
|
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|
| {| class="wikitable" | | {|- |
| |- | |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>preterite</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>perfect</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>plusquamperfect</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočow</center> || <center>asusōnočow</center> || <center>sōsunočagow</center> || <center>asusōnočagow</center>
| |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočər</center> || <center>asusōnočər</center> || <center>sōsunočagər</center> || <center>asusōnočagər</center> | | | || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočeš</center> || <center>asusōnočeš</center> || <center>sōsunočageš</center> || <center>asusōnočageš</center> | | | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center>sōsunoč</center> || <center>asusōnoč</center> || <center>sōsunočag</center> || <center>asusōnočag</center> | | | <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunočohi</center> || <center>asusōnočohi</center> || <center>sōsunočagohi</center> || <center>asusōnočagohi</center> | | | <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunočəri</center> || <center>asusōnočəri</center> || <center>sōsunočagəri</center> || <center>asusōnočagəri</center> | | | <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunočeši</center> || <center>asusōnočeši</center> || <center>sōsunočageši</center> || <center>asusōnočageši</center> | | | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center>sōsunoči</center> || <center>asusōnoči</center> || <center>sōsunočagi</center> || <center>asusōnočagi</center> | | | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočohon</center> || <center>asusōnočohon</center> || <center>sōsunočagohon</center> || <center>asusōnočagohon</center> | | | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočəron</center> || <center>asusōnočəron</center> || <center>sōsunočagəron</center> || <center>asusōnočagəron</center> | | | <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočešon</center> || <center>asusōnočešon</center> || <center>sōsunočagešon</center> || <center>asusōnočagešon</center> | | | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center>sōsunočon</center> || <center>asusōnočon</center> || <center>sōsunočagon</center> || <center>asusōnočagon</center> | | | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa''' |
| |} | | |} |
|
| |
|
| ====Potential mood====
| | The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case: |
| The '''potential''' mood is used to convey potentiality and probability. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses. In a figurative sense it may convey doubt and uncertainty. | |
| | |
| The potential widely features the infix -eč-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings. In the perfect and plusquamperfect tenses, it is added before the infix -ag-. However, the subjunctive lacks both future and anterior future tenses, replaced by their indicative counterparts.
| |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable"
| | * '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>) |
| |-
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>preterite</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>perfect</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>plusquamperfect</small>''</center>
| | * '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>) |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečow</center> || <center>asusōnečow</center> || <center>sōsunečagow</center> || <center>asusōnečagow</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečər</center> || <center>asusōnečər</center> || <center>sōsunečagər</center> || <center>asusōnečagər</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečeš</center> || <center>asusōnečeš</center> || <center>sōsunečageš</center> || <center>asusōnečageš</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsuneč</center> || <center>asusōneč</center> || <center>sōsunečag</center> || <center>asusōnečag</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunečohi</center> || <center>asusōnečohi</center> || <center>sōsunečagohi</center> || <center>asusōnečagohi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunečəri</center> || <center>asusōnečəri</center> || <center>sōsunečagəri</center> || <center>asusōnečagəri</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunečeši</center> || <center>asusōnečeši</center> || <center>sōsunečageši</center> || <center>asusōnečageši</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsuneči</center> || <center>asusōneči</center> || <center>sōsunečagi</center> || <center>asusōnečagi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečohon</center> || <center>asusōnečohon</center> || <center>sōsunečagohon</center> || <center>asusōnečagohon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečəron</center> || <center>asusōnečəron</center> || <center>sōsunečagəron</center> || <center>asusōnečagəron</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečešon</center> || <center>asusōnečešon</center> || <center>sōsunečagešon</center> || <center>asusōnečagešon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunečon</center> || <center>asusōnečon</center> || <center>sōsunečagon</center> || <center>asusōnečagon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Non-finite forms====
| |
| The non-finite verbal forms are:
| |
| | |
| ======Infinitive======
| |
| There are two infinitival forms, the ''primary infinitive'', which is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and the ''secondary infinitive''. Both infinitives have a present and a past form, respectively built on the ''present root'' and on the ''preterite root''.
| |
| | |
| The '''primary infinitive''' is formed through the ending -em, while the '''secondary infinitive''' through the ending -iga.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>preterite</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>primary</small>'' || <center>sōsunem</center> || <center>asusōnem</center>
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| | ''<small>secondary</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga</center> || <center>asusōniga</center>
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| |-
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| |}
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| Both infinitives are nominal forms of a verb. They can be used as such in sentences and they can be declined. They are regarded as class II nouns.
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| They have different usages:
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| *The primary infinitive is mostly used in main clauses as a verbal noun, with modal verbs or with the negative verb īsem. | |
| *The secondary infinitive is mostly used in dependent clauses, or in the verbal conjugation for the formation of the future tenses.
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| Their usage as a pure nominal form as quite limited.
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| ======Participle======
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| There are two participial forms, the ''agentive participle'' and the ''passive participle''. Both infinitives have a present and a past form, respectively built on the ''present root'' and on the ''preterite root''.
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| The '''agentive participle''' is formed through the ending -īdu, while the '''passive participle''' through the ending -ugi. They have a present and a past form, this last formed through the augment.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| |-
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| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>preterite</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>agentive</small>'' || <center>sōsunīdu</center> || <center>asusōnīdu</center>
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| | ''<small>passive</small>'' || <center>sōsunugi</center> || <center>asusōnugi</center>
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| |-
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| |}
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| The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. It is often used to build relative clauses. As an adjectival form it thus displays a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes, but agreeing with its adjoining noun.
| | These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns: |
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| The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses.
| | * '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>) |
