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| ===Conjugation of a regular verb=== | | ===Interrogative pronouns=== |
| Sample verb: sōsunem, ''to confuse''
| | Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: |
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| ====Indicative mood====
| | *<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-''' |
| | *<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-''' |
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| |
|
| =====Present tense=====
| | When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''. |
| The '''present''' is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the present root:
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| {| class="wikitable"
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme''' |
| |-
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small> |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 140px;"| <center>sōsunow</center>
| |
| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunər</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsuneš</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsun</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunohi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunəri</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsuneši</center>
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| |-
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| | <center>sōsuni</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunohon</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunəron</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunešon</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| In the short form of the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, which features the ''null ending'', irregularities may often occur, like an alteration of the last root consonant:
| |
| | |
| uligem → ulik
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| <small>to die → he/she/it dies</small> | |
| | |
| The present tense conveys ongoing, habitual or gnomic actions or states.
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| | |
| =====Preterite tense=====
| |
| The '''preterite''' is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the preterite root:
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| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 140px;"| <center>asusōnow</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōnər</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōneš</center>
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| |-
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| | <center>asusōn</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnohi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnəri</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōneši</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōni</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnohon</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnəron</center>
| |
| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnešon</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōnon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| In the short form of the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, which features the ''null ending'', irregularities may often occur, like an alteration of the last root consonant (<small>basically the same alteration as in the present tense</small>):
| |
| | |
| uligem → eluk
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| <small>to die → he/she/it died</small>
| |
| | |
| The preterite tense conveys completed, ongoing or habitual actions or states in the past, without any influence on the present.
| |
| | |
| =====Perfect tense=====
| |
| The '''perfect''' is a simple tense. The infix -ag- and the personal endings are added to the present root:
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 140px;"| <center>sōsunow</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunagər</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunageš</center>
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| |-
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| | <center>sōsunag</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunagohi</center>
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| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunagəri</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunageši</center>
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| |-
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| | <center>sōsunagi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunagohon</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunagəron</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunagešon</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunagon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| The perfect tense conveys actions or states which have taken place in the past, but which still can have an influence on the present. It also may convey an action or a state which have begun in the past but it is still ongoing in the present.
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| | |
| =====Plusquamperfect tense=====
| |
| The '''plusquamperfect''' is a compound tense. The infix -ag- and the personal endings are added to the past root:
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|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable"
| | When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''. |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 140px;"| <center>asusōnagow</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōnagər</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōnageš</center>
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| |-
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| | <center>asusōnag</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnagohi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnagəri</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōnageši</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōnagi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnagohon</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnagəron</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōnagešon</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōnon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| The plusquamperfect tense conveys actions or states which had taken place before another past action or state, but which still had an influence on that time. It also may convey an action or a state which had begun in the past but it is still ongoing during another past action or state.
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi''' |
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> |
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| |
|
| =====Future tense=====
| | As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun. |
| The '''future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the present secondary infinitive of the conjugated verb and the indicative present forms of the verb imēhem, ''to go'':
| |
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|
| {| class="wikitable" | | {|- |
| |- | |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 180px;"| <center>sōsuniga imēhow</center>
| |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhər</center> | | | || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēheš</center> | | | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center>sōsuniga imēh</center> | | | <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhohi</center> | | | <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhəri</center> | | | <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēheši</center> | | | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center>sōsuniga imēhi</center> | | | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhohon</center> | | | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhəron</center> | | | <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga imēhešon</center> | | | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center>sōsuniga imēhon</center> | | | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa''' |
| |} | | |} |
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| The future tense conveys actions or states which will be completed, habitual or ongoing in the future. | | The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case: |
| | |
| =====Anterior future tense=====
| |
| The '''anterior future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the preterite secondary infinitive of the conjugated verb and the indicative present forms of the verb imēhem, ''to go'':
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 180px;"| <center>asusōniga imēhow</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhər</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēheš</center>
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| |-
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| | <center>asusōniga imēh</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhohi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhəri</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēheši</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōniga imēhi</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhohon</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhəron</center>
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| |-
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| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>asusōniga imēhešon</center>
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| |-
| |
| | <center>asusōniga imēhon</center>
| |
| |}
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| | |
| The anterior future tense conveys actions or states which will take place before another future action or state, but which will still have an influence on that time. It also may convey an action or a state which will begin in the past of a future moment but it will be still ongoing during another future action or state.
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| | |
| ====Subjunctive mood====
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| The '''subjunctive''' mood is mostly used in dependent clauses, with several usages. Its usage in main clauses is quite limited, except for its role as an imperative form. It can also convey exhortation, desire, and wish.
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| | |
| The subjunctive widely features the infix -oč-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings. In the perfect and plusquamperfect tenses, it is added before the infix -ag-. However, the subjunctive lacks both future and anterior future tenses, replaced by their indicative counterparts.
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| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>preterite</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>perfect</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>plusquamperfect</small>''</center>
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| |-
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočow</center> || <center>asusōnočow</center> || <center>sōsunočagow</center> || <center>asusōnočagow</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočər</center> || <center>asusōnočər</center> || <center>sōsunočagər</center> || <center>asusōnočagər</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočeš</center> || <center>asusōnočeš</center> || <center>sōsunočageš</center> || <center>asusōnočageš</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunoč</center> || <center>asusōnoč</center> || <center>sōsunočag</center> || <center>asusōnočag</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunočohi</center> || <center>asusōnočohi</center> || <center>sōsunočagohi</center> || <center>asusōnočagohi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunočəri</center> || <center>asusōnočəri</center> || <center>sōsunočagəri</center> || <center>asusōnočagəri</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunočeši</center> || <center>asusōnočeši</center> || <center>sōsunočageši</center> || <center>asusōnočageši</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunoči</center> || <center>asusōnoči</center> || <center>sōsunočagi</center> || <center>asusōnočagi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočohon</center> || <center>asusōnočohon</center> || <center>sōsunočagohon</center> || <center>asusōnočagohon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočəron</center> || <center>asusōnočəron</center> || <center>sōsunočagəron</center> || <center>asusōnočagəron</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunočešon</center> || <center>asusōnočešon</center> || <center>sōsunočagešon</center> || <center>asusōnočagešon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunočon</center> || <center>asusōnočon</center> || <center>sōsunočagon</center> || <center>asusōnočagon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Potential mood====
| |
| The '''potential''' mood is used to convey potentiality and probability. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses. In a figurative sense it may convey doubt and uncertainty.
| |
| | |
| The potential widely features the infix -eč-, which is placed between the roots and the personal endings. In the perfect and plusquamperfect tenses, it is added before the infix -ag-. However, the subjunctive lacks both future and anterior future tenses, replaced by their indicative counterparts.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
| |-
| |
| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>preterite</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>perfect</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>plusquamperfect</small>''</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečow</center> || <center>asusōnečow</center> || <center>sōsunečagow</center> || <center>asusōnečagow</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečər</center> || <center>asusōnečər</center> || <center>sōsunečagər</center> || <center>asusōnečagər</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečeš</center> || <center>asusōnečeš</center> || <center>sōsunečageš</center> || <center>asusōnečageš</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsuneč</center> || <center>asusōneč</center> || <center>sōsunečag</center> || <center>asusōnečag</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunečohi</center> || <center>asusōnečohi</center> || <center>sōsunečagohi</center> || <center>asusōnečagohi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunečəri</center> || <center>asusōnečəri</center> || <center>sōsunečagəri</center> || <center>asusōnečagəri</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>sōsunečeši</center> || <center>asusōnečeši</center> || <center>sōsunečageši</center> || <center>asusōnečageši</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsuneči</center> || <center>asusōneči</center> || <center>sōsunečagi</center> || <center>asusōnečagi</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečohon</center> || <center>asusōnečohon</center> || <center>sōsunečagohon</center> || <center>asusōnečagohon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečəron</center> || <center>asusōnečəron</center> || <center>sōsunečagəron</center> || <center>asusōnečagəron</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>sōsunečešon</center> || <center>asusōnečešon</center> || <center>sōsunečagešon</center> || <center>asusōnečagešon</center>
| |
| |-
| |
| | <center>sōsunečon</center> || <center>asusōnečon</center> || <center>sōsunečagon</center> || <center>asusōnečagon</center>
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Non-finite forms====
| |
| The non-finite verbal forms are:
| |
| | |
| ======Infinitive======
| |
| There are two infinitival forms, the ''primary infinitive'', which is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and the ''secondary infinitive''. Both infinitives have a present and a past form, respectively built on the ''present root'' and on the ''preterite root''.
| |
| | |
| The '''primary infinitive''' is formed through the ending -em, while the '''secondary infinitive''' through the ending -iga.
| |
| | |
| {| class="wikitable"
| |
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| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>preterite</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>primary</small>'' || <center>sōsunem</center> || <center>asusōnem</center>
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| | ''<small>secondary</small>'' || <center>sōsuniga</center> || <center>asusōniga</center>
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| Both infinitives are nominal forms of a verb. They can be used as such in sentences and they can be declined. They are regarded as class II nouns.
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| They have different usages:
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| *The primary infinitive is mostly used in main clauses as a verbal noun, with modal verbs or with the negative verb īsem.
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| *The secondary infinitive is mostly used in dependent clauses, or in the verbal conjugation for the formation of the future tenses.
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| Their usage as a pure nominal form as quite limited.
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| ======Participle======
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| There are two participial forms, the ''agentive participle'' and the ''passive participle''. Both infinitives have a present and a past form, respectively built on the ''present root'' and on the ''preterite root''.
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| The '''agentive participle''' is formed through the ending -īdu, while the '''passive participle''' through the ending -ugi. They have a present and a past form, this last formed through the augment.
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 140px;"| <center>''<small>preterite</small>''</center>
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| | ''<small>agentive</small>'' || <center>sōsunīdu</center> || <center>asusōnīdu</center>
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| | ''<small>passive</small>'' || <center>sōsunugi</center> || <center>asusōnugi</center>
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| |}
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| Il participio agentivo è una forma verbale aggettivale che si usa insieme ad un nome per indicare che svolge attivamente un’azione. Viene spesso usato per formare le proposizioni relative. In quanto forma aggettivale possiede una declinazione completa da usare in base alla classe del suo referente.
| | * '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>) |
| Il participio passivo è una forma verbale aggettivale che si usa insieme ad un nome per indicare che subisce passivamente un’azione. Nonostante l’assenza di una diatesi passiva verbale, questa forma è la cosa che più si avvicina a questo ruolo. Può essere usato solamente come aggettivo e può formare frasi relative.
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>) |
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| The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. IIt is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.
| | These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns: |
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| When they are used in the verbal conjugation, participles are deemed as indeclinable forms, while if they are used as adjectives they follow the same rule of qualifying adjectives and are declined through the prepositive article.
| | * '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>) |
