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| ==Verbs== | | ===Interrogative pronouns=== |
| The verbal system of Viwdiwgu language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the ''perfective root'' ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
| | Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: |
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| CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C
| | *<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-''' |
| | *<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-''' |
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| Example:
| | When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''. |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gɛɣuɣ- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = guɣɛɣ-
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| In addition to vowels, the diphthongs -jɛ-, -ju- and -iw- can be switched:
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme''' |
| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = čiwgul- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = čugiwl-
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small> |
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| In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.
| | When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''. |
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| However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowels involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi''' |
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = hūɣāzuz- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = hūɣuzāz-
| | As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun. |
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ṡihiwšōr- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ṡiwhižōr-
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| '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = xjɛcɛɣilig- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = xjɛtsiɣɛlig-
| | | || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center> |
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| Some monosyllabic roots are not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (<small>or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective</small>).
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| A very limited amount of roots, mostly loanwords and some monosyllabic roots, derive their perfective roots by adding the suffix -ig.
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| A threefold temporal distinction is also made, among ''present'', ''past'', and ''future'' tenses. In the present tense there is no aspectual distinction, being this tense built only on the imperfective root.
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| There are three verbal moods and two non-finite forms:
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| * ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, potential
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| * ''Non-finite'': infinitive, participle
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| The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -iwgɛ, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.
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| All verbs are divided in two classes, depending on the outcome of the third singular person. In the ''first class'' ('''class I'''), the ending -jɛc/-́ɛc is used, with some possible irregularities, while in the ''second class'' ('''class II'''), a ''null ending'' is used, with a more regular outcome.
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| The following personal endings are then added to various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| | style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 70px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 70px;"| <center>''class II''</center> | | | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> |
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ū</center> || <center>-ū</center> | | | <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə''' |
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ir</center> || <center>-ir</center> | | | <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej''' |
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-jɛc / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛc</center> || <center>-</center> | | | <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu''' |
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>-iwhū</center> || <center>-iwhū</center> | | | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu''' |
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>-iwhir</center> || <center>-iwhir</center> | | | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo''' |
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>-iwcɛc</center> || <center>-iwh</center> | | | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno''' |
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| | ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-ü</center> || <center>-ü</center> | | | <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə''' |
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| | ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-ür</center> || <center>-ür</center> | | | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma''' |
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| | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-ünjɛc</center> || <center>-ün</center> | | | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa''' |
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| In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person, one of the endings displays two possible forms, -jɛc or -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛc. After some consonants this ending appears as -ɛc, and palatalizes the previous consonant, or it is added to an already palatalized consonant without further effects.
| | The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case: |
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| djumɛliwgɛ → djumɛʝɛc
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| <small>to drink → he/she/it drinks</small>
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| lilužiwgɛ → līlužɛc
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| <small>to see → he/she/it sees</small>
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| The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
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| *''indicative'': Ø
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| *''subjunctive'': -iwň-
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| *''potential'': -jɛts- / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛts-
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| The potential mood infix displays the same irregularities as the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending and it follows the same rules. All modal infixes merge with the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending:
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| *-iwň- + -jɛc = -iwňɛc
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| *-jɛts- + -jɛc = -jɛcɛc
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| The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.
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| As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.
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| The non-finite endings are:
| | * '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>) |
| *''infinitive'': -iwgɛ | | * '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| *''passive participle'': -juɣiw- / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>uɣiw- | | * '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>) |
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| The participle ending displays the same irregularities as the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending and it follows the same rules.
| | These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns: |
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| A distinction between an active diathesis and a passive diathesis is made. However, the passive diathesis distinguishes an extremely reduced amount of forms.
| | * '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>) |
Interrogative pronouns
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:
- quality: ṫjejm-
- quantity: sjowp-
When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-.
ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -e- → ṫjejme
interr. → what?, who?
When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-.
ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -i- → ṫjejmi
interr. → which?
As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.
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who? / what? |
how much? / how many?
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singular |
plural |
singular |
plural
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| ergative |
ṫjejmek̇ə |
ṫjejmejk̇ə |
sjowpek̇ə |
sjowpejk̇ə
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| absolutive |
ṫjejme |
ṫjejmej |
sjowpe |
sjowpej
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| possessive |
ṫjejmeṗu |
ṫjejmejṗu |
sjowpeṗu |
sjowpejṗu
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| terminative |
ṫjejmeʈu |
ṫjejmejʈu |
sjowpeʈu |
sjowpejʈu
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| ablative |
ṫjejmeʡo |
ṫjejmejʡo |
sjowpeʡo |
sjowpejʡo
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| causative |
ṫjejmeno |
ṫjejmejno |
sjowpeno |
sjowpejno
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| benefactive |
ṫjejmepə |
ṫjejmejpə |
sjowpepə |
sjowpejpə
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| instrumental |
ṫjejmema |
ṫjejmejma |
sjowpema |
sjowpejma
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| locative |
ṫjejmewa |
ṫjejmejwa |
sjowpewa |
sjowpejwa
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The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:
- ṫjejmewa: where (static location)
- ṫjejmeʈu: where (motion toward)
- ṫjejmeno : why (cause)
These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:
- ṫjejmewa weʡewa: in which place (static location)
- ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu: in which place (motion toward)
