User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII: Difference between revisions

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==Verbs==
===Interrogative pronouns===
The verbal system of Cärähə language displays the following features:
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:


*'''tense''':
*<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-'''
**''simple tenses'': present, past
*<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-'''
**''compound tenses'': present continuous, past continuous, perfect, pluperfect, future, anterior future, future in the past
*'''mood''':
**''definite moods'': indicative, subjunctive, optative, potential
**''indefinite moods'': infinitive, active participle, passive participle
*'''diathesis''': active, passive


Each verb has two roots, the ''present root'' ('''R<sub>pres</sub>''') and the ''past root'' ('''R<sub>past</sub>'''). The base form is the present root, while the past root is usually derived fromt he present one. . The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''.


  CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C
  '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme'''
<small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small>  


Example:
When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''.
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = moɕäd- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = mäɕod-


This process may give rise to irregular root forms.
'''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi'''
<small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> 


'''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = ǵärug- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = guŕäg-
As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.


In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.
{|-
 
|-
However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:
| || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center>
 
|-
'''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = secerun- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = securen-
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
 
|-
'''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = sühisuh- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = sihüsuh-
| <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə'''
 
|-
'''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = x́äsähirih- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = x́äsihärih-
| <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej'''
 
Some verbs, many of them neologisms or loanwords, derive their past root from the present one by adding the suffix -ig, without any vowel switching:
 
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C'''ig'''
 
:Example:
'''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = çurühuh- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = çurühuhig-
 
The verb cänühä, ''to be'', display a totally irregular past root:
 
'''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = cän- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = häcän-
 
Likewise, other monosyllabic verbs are treated as irregular verbs.
 
The citation form of verbs is the present infinitive, marked by the ending -ühä. From such form the present verbal root can be inferred and can be changed in every other verbal form.
 
All verbs are divided in two classes, depending on the outcome of the third singular person. In the ''first class'' ('''class I'''), the ending -äh is used, with some possible irregularities, while in the ''second class'' ('''class II'''), a ''null ending'' is used, with a more regular outcome. Verbs with a past root built with the suffix -ig- belong always to the class II, creating thus a subgroup, known as '''class IIg'''.
 
In simple tenses the following personal endings are added to the verbal root. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 70px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 70px;"| <center>''class II''</center>
| <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ü</center> || <center>-ü</center>
| <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ir</center> || <center>-ir</center>
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-́äh</center> || <center>-</center>
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-unü</center> || <center>-unü</center>
| <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-unir</center> || <center>-unir</center>
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-uńäh</center> || <center>-un</center>
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa'''
|}
|}


The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:
 
*''indicative'': Ø
*''subjunctive'': -ün-
*''optative'': -us-
*''potential'': -äɕ-


The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings. As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots.
* '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>)


The non-finite endings are:
These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:  
*''infinitive'': -ühä
*''active participle'': -īdə
*''passive participle'': -́uhi


The passive particle ending may cause irregularities to arise in the roots.
* '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>)

Latest revision as of 02:22, 26 September 2025

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:

  • quality: ṫjejm-
  • quantity: sjowp-

When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-. 

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -e- → ṫjejme
interr. → what?, who?

When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-. 

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -i- → ṫjejmi
interr. → which?

As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.

who? / what?
how much? / how many?
singular
plural
singular
plural
ergative
 ṫjejmek̇ə ṫjejmejk̇ə sjowpek̇ə sjowpejk̇ə
absolutive
 ṫjejme ṫjejmej sjowpe sjowpej
possessive
 ṫjejmeṗu ṫjejmejṗu sjowpeṗu sjowpejṗu
terminative
 ṫjejmeʈu ṫjejmejʈu sjowpeʈu sjowpejʈu
ablative
 ṫjejmeʡo ṫjejmejʡo sjowpeʡo sjowpejʡo
causative
 ṫjejmeno ṫjejmejno sjowpeno sjowpejno
benefactive
 ṫjejmepə ṫjejmejpə sjowpepə sjowpejpə
instrumental
 ṫjejmema ṫjejmejma sjowpema sjowpejma
locative
 ṫjejmewa ṫjejmejwa sjowpewa sjowpejwa

The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:

  • ṫjejmewa: where (static location)
  • ṫjejmeʈu: where (motion toward)
  • ṫjejmeno : why (cause)

These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:

  • ṫjejmewa weʡewa: in which place (static location)
  • ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu: in which place (motion toward)
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