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==Verbs==
===Interrogative pronouns===
The verbal system of Biwdiw language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the ''perfective root'' ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one by means of the prefix e-, known as ''augment'':
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:


'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' → e'''(R<sub>imp</sub>)<sub>prf</sub>'''
*<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-'''
*<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-'''


Example:
When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''.
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gegug- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = egegug-


By adding the augment, irregular forms may arise:
  '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme'''
  '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ləjuž- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ejjuž-
<small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small>  


A very limited amount of roots, conversely, derive their perfective roots by adding the suffix -ig:
When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''.


  '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ɔkez- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ɔkezig-
  '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi'''
<small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small>


A threefold temporal distinction is also made, among ''present'', ''past'', and ''future'' tenses. In the present tense there is no aspectual distinction, being this tense built only on the imperfective root.
As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.


There are two verbal moods and two non-finite forms:
{|-
* ''Moods'': indicative, conditional
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, participle
 
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -əjge, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.
 
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ū</center>
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ir</center>
| || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center>
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-jɛc / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛc</center>
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>  
|-
|-
| <center>-</center>
| <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə'''
|-
|-
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-iwhū</center>
| <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>-iwhir</center>
| <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu'''
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>-iwcɛc</center>
| <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu'''
|-
|-
| <center>-iwh</center>
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo'''
|-
|-
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-unū</center>
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-unir</center>
| <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə'''
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-unjɛc</center>
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma'''
|-
|-
| <center>-un</center>
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa'''
|}
|}


In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person, one of the endings displays two possible forms, -jɛc or -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛc. After some consonants this ending appears as -ɛc, and palatalizes the previous consonant, or it is added to an already palatalized consonant without further effects.
The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:
 
cɛgiliwgɛ → cɛgiʎɛc
<small>to say → he/she/it says</small>
 
lilušiwgɛ → lilušɛc
<small>to see → he/she/it sees</small>
 
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
 
*''indicative'': Ø
*''subjunctive'': -iwň-
*''optative'': -uš-
*''potential'': -jɛʈ- / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛʈ-
 
The potential mood infix displays the same irregularities as the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending and it follows the same rules. All modal infixes merge with the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending:
*-iwň- + -jɛc = -iwňɛc
*-uš- + -jɛc = -ušɛc
*-jɛʈ- + -jɛc = -jɛcɛc
 
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.
 
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.


The non-finite endings are:
* '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>)
*''infinitive'': -iwgɛ
* '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>)
*''agentive participle'': -īdu
* '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>)
*''passive participle'': -jugiw- / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ugiw-


The passive participle ending displays the same irregularities as the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> singular person ending and it follows the same rules.
These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:


The infinitival form is meant as a class II noun.
* '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>)

Latest revision as of 02:22, 26 September 2025

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:

  • quality: ṫjejm-
  • quantity: sjowp-

When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-. 

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -e- → ṫjejme
interr. → what?, who?

When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-. 

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -i- → ṫjejmi
interr. → which?

As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.

who? / what?
how much? / how many?
singular
plural
singular
plural
ergative
 ṫjejmek̇ə ṫjejmejk̇ə sjowpek̇ə sjowpejk̇ə
absolutive
 ṫjejme ṫjejmej sjowpe sjowpej
possessive
 ṫjejmeṗu ṫjejmejṗu sjowpeṗu sjowpejṗu
terminative
 ṫjejmeʈu ṫjejmejʈu sjowpeʈu sjowpejʈu
ablative
 ṫjejmeʡo ṫjejmejʡo sjowpeʡo sjowpejʡo
causative
 ṫjejmeno ṫjejmejno sjowpeno sjowpejno
benefactive
 ṫjejmepə ṫjejmejpə sjowpepə sjowpejpə
instrumental
 ṫjejmema ṫjejmejma sjowpema sjowpejma
locative
 ṫjejmewa ṫjejmejwa sjowpewa sjowpejwa

The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:

  • ṫjejmewa: where (static location)
  • ṫjejmeʈu: where (motion toward)
  • ṫjejmeno : why (cause)

These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:

  • ṫjejmewa weʡewa: in which place (static location)
  • ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu: in which place (motion toward)
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