User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII: Difference between revisions

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==Verbs==
===Interrogative pronouns===
The verbal system of Biwdiw language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:


CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C
*<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-'''
*<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-'''


Example:
When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''.
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gɛgug- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gugɛg-


In addition to vowels, the diphthongs -jɛ-, -ju- and -iw- can be switched:
'''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme'''
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = čiwgul- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = čugiwl-
<small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small>  


Rising diphthongs -jɛ- and -ju- can trigger the palatalization of some consonants. Thus, irregular root forms may often appear:
When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''.


  '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = cɛgil- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ʈigjɛl-
  '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi'''
<small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small>


In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.  
As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.


However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:
{|-
 
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = hūgāsus- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = hūgusās-
 
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = ʂēhiwšōr- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = ʂiwhēšōr-
 
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = xjɛcɛgilig- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = xjɛʈigjɛlig-
 
Monosyllabic roots, like çɛň-, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective). This rule may apply to some loanwords.
 
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix hɛ-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-
 
There are also three analytic verbal forms, compound tenses with the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, ''to be'', and an infinitival form: an imperfective future, a perfect resultative and a plusquamperfect resultative.
 
There are four verbal moods and three non-finite forms:
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, optative, potential
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle
 
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -iwgɛ, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.
 
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ū</center>
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ir</center>
| || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center>
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-jɛc / -<sup><small>j</small></sup>ɛc</center>
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>  
|-
|-
| <center>-</center>
| <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə'''
|-
|-
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> dual</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-iwhū</center>
| <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>-iwhir</center>
| <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu'''
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> dual</small>'' || <center>-iwcɛc</center>
| <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu'''
|-
|-
| <center>-iwh</center>
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo'''
|-
|-
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-unū</center>
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno'''
|-
|-
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-unir</center>
| <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə'''
|-
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-unjɛc</center>
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma'''
|-
|-
| <center>-un</center>
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa'''
|}
|}


The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:
*''indicative'': Ø
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-
*''conditional'': -ɑts-
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.


As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.
* '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>)


The non-finite endings are:
These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:  
*''infinitive'': -ɑme
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to
*''passive participle'': -uki


The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.
* '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>)

Latest revision as of 02:22, 26 September 2025

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:

  • quality: ṫjejm-
  • quantity: sjowp-

When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-. 

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -e- → ṫjejme
interr. → what?, who?

When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-. 

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -i- → ṫjejmi
interr. → which?

As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.

who? / what?
how much? / how many?
singular
plural
singular
plural
ergative
 ṫjejmek̇ə ṫjejmejk̇ə sjowpek̇ə sjowpejk̇ə
absolutive
 ṫjejme ṫjejmej sjowpe sjowpej
possessive
 ṫjejmeṗu ṫjejmejṗu sjowpeṗu sjowpejṗu
terminative
 ṫjejmeʈu ṫjejmejʈu sjowpeʈu sjowpejʈu
ablative
 ṫjejmeʡo ṫjejmejʡo sjowpeʡo sjowpejʡo
causative
 ṫjejmeno ṫjejmejno sjowpeno sjowpejno
benefactive
 ṫjejmepə ṫjejmejpə sjowpepə sjowpejpə
instrumental
 ṫjejmema ṫjejmejma sjowpema sjowpejma
locative
 ṫjejmewa ṫjejmejwa sjowpewa sjowpejwa

The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:

  • ṫjejmewa: where (static location)
  • ṫjejmeʈu: where (motion toward)
  • ṫjejmeno : why (cause)

These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:

  • ṫjejmewa weʡewa: in which place (static location)
  • ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu: in which place (motion toward)
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