User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII: Difference between revisions

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==Tones==
===Interrogative pronouns===
All vowels clearly display a distinctive feature: the '''tone'''.
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:


bɑ̄̀ - bɑ̀ - bɑ̱
*<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-'''
<small>eagle - to say - to cultivate</small>
*<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-'''


There are 18 possible tonal distinctions, that can be expressed on every single vowel. These distinctions arise from tone leves and falling or rising features among these leves.
When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''.
The five distinguished tone leves are marked by a numeral sign:


*[V<sup><small>5</small></sup>], ''high level''
'''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme'''
*[V<sup><small>4</small></sup>], ''high-mid level''
<small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small>  
*[V<sup><small>3</small></sup>], ''mid level''
*[V<sup><small>2</small></sup>], ''mid-low level''
*[V<sup><small>1</small></sup>], ''low level''


The high tone, the mid tone and the low tone are regarded as ''primary'' levels, while the high-mid level and the mid-low level are called ''middle'' levels.  
When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''.


Primary levels produce three tones, called ''linear'' (<small>as a graphic example of the tones, the vowel [a] is used</small>):
'''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi'''
<small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small>


*[V<sup><small>55</small></sup>]: ā
As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.
*[V<sup><small>33</small></sup>]: a
*[V<sup><small>11</small></sup>]: a̱


Conversely, middle levels cannot produce any linear tones.
{|-
|-
| || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center>
|-
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
|-
| <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə'''
|-
| <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej'''
|-
| <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu'''
|-
| <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu'''
|-
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo'''
|-
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno'''
|-
| <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə'''
|-
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma'''
|-
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa'''
|}


Tones can be expressed by an alteration of the level value. This kind of tones is called ''uneven''. If the tone is altered towards an higher level, they are called ''rising tones'', while if the is altered towards a lower level, they are called ''falling tones'':  
The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:


''Rising'' tones:
* '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>)
* '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>)


*[V<sup><small>35</small></sup>]: á
These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:  
*[V<sup><small>25</small></sup>]: ā́
*[V<sup><small>14</small></sup>]: a̱̋
*[V<sup><small>13</small></sup>]: á̱


''Falling'' tones:
* '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>)
 
* '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>)
*[V<sup><small>53</small></sup>]: ā̀
*[V<sup><small>52</small></sup>]: ā̏
*[V<sup><small>41</small></sup>]: ȁ̱
*[V<sup><small>31</small></sup>]: à
 
Un’ulteriore distinzione di tono viene realizzata tramite due alterazioni del valore di livello. Questo tipo di toni è detto di picco. Se l’alterazione centrale è verso un tono più alto, si chiamano toni di apice, mentre se l’alterazione centrale è verso un tono più basso, si chiamano toni di basso:
Toni di apice:
• [V453]: ā̂
• [V354]: ā̃
• [V132]: â
• [V231]: â̱
Toni di basso:
• [V534]: ǎ
• [V435]: ā̌
• [V312]: ã̱
• [V213]: ǎ̱
La distribuzione dei toni non è uniforme ed alcuni di essi sono sostanzialmente meno diffusi degli altri. In generale, si può affermare che i toni di livello siano i più diffusi, con, a seguire, i toni di dislivello. I toni di picco sono complessivamente i meno diffusi. Anche all’interno degli stessi sottogruppi esiste una disparità di distribuzione, ma questa rimane più difficile da esemplificare.
 
 
 
All vowels make a distinction among five different tones. Tone is a clearly distinctive feature:
ɛ́hnez - ɛ̌hnez
<small>to bite - to help</small>
 
Using the vowel [a] as an example, the tones, and their graphic transcription, are:
*'''a''': [a˧], ''mid tone''.
*'''á''': [a˧˥], ''rising tone''.
*'''à''': [a˧˩], ''falling tone''.
*'''â''': [a˧˥˧], ''rising-falling'' or ''apical tone''.
*'''ǎ''': [a˥˧˥], ''falling-rising'' or ''bottom tone''.
 
The mid tone is usually regarded as a ''neutral tone'', not being graphically expressed by any diacritic mark. The rising and the falling tones are regarded as ''linear tones''. The rising-falling and the falling-rising tones are rearded as ''spike tones''. This distinction is relevant for stress positioning.
 
Tone variations are abundant among dialects, both diachronically and synchronically. Generally speaking, however, five tonal types are always distinguished.

Latest revision as of 02:22, 26 September 2025

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:

  • quality: ṫjejm-
  • quantity: sjowp-

When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-. 

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -e- → ṫjejme
interr. → what?, who?

When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-. 

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -i- → ṫjejmi
interr. → which?

As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.

who? / what?
how much? / how many?
singular
plural
singular
plural
ergative
 ṫjejmek̇ə ṫjejmejk̇ə sjowpek̇ə sjowpejk̇ə
absolutive
 ṫjejme ṫjejmej sjowpe sjowpej
possessive
 ṫjejmeṗu ṫjejmejṗu sjowpeṗu sjowpejṗu
terminative
 ṫjejmeʈu ṫjejmejʈu sjowpeʈu sjowpejʈu
ablative
 ṫjejmeʡo ṫjejmejʡo sjowpeʡo sjowpejʡo
causative
 ṫjejmeno ṫjejmejno sjowpeno sjowpejno
benefactive
 ṫjejmepə ṫjejmejpə sjowpepə sjowpejpə
instrumental
 ṫjejmema ṫjejmejma sjowpema sjowpejma
locative
 ṫjejmewa ṫjejmejwa sjowpewa sjowpejwa

The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:

  • ṫjejmewa: where (static location)
  • ṫjejmeʈu: where (motion toward)
  • ṫjejmeno : why (cause)

These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:

  • ṫjejmewa weʡewa: in which place (static location)
  • ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu: in which place (motion toward)
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