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| ===Noun declension=== | | ===Interrogative pronouns=== |
| Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:
| | Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: |
| {|-
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| |-
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| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''nominative''</small></center> || -r || -rĩ
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''accusative''</small></center> || - || - ̃
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || -š || -šũ
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| |}
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| An example is shown below: sobar, ''dog''.
| | *<small>''quality'':</small> '''ṫjejm-''' |
| {|-
| | *<small>''quantity'':</small> '''sjowp-''' |
| |-
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| | || colspan="2" | <center>sobar</center>
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| |-
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| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''basic''</small></center> || sobar || sobarĩ
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || soba || sobã
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || sobaš || sobašũ
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| |}
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| As it can be noticed, the plural form of the accusative case always involves nasalization of the last vowel. This process may happen on every available vowel, but, if the last vowel is already nasal in the singular, the plural accusative form will be identical to its singular counterpart.
| | When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix '''-e-'''. |
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| Nouns ending in a consonant in the singular direct case usually add a euphonic vowel before the endings of the other cases. There is no tendency on a specific euphonic vowel.
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-e-''' → '''ṫjejme''' |
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''what?, who?''</small> |
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| An example is shown below: rimər, ''world'', ''earth''.
| | When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix '''-i-'''. |
| {|-
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| | || colspan="2" | <center>rimər</center>
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| |-
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| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''basic''</small></center> || rimər || rimərĩ
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || rim || rimə̃
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || riməš || riməšũ
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| |}
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| In this case, the added vowel is -ə-, which is regularly nasalized in the accusative plural form. Every euphonic vowel is always shown in the citation form, the singular nominative case.
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| The vowels -ə-, -i- or -u- are often dropped in the accusative singular, when present before the nominative singular ending.
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| Some irregular nouns, whose base form ends in a vowel, can add an entire syllable before the case endings.
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| An example is shown below: swõnur, ''house''.
| |
| {|-
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| |-
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| | || colspan="2" | <center>swõnur</center>
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| |-
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| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''basic''</small></center> || swõnur || swõnurĩ
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || swõ || swõnũ
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || swõnuš || swõnušũ
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| |}
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| The irregularly added syllable is more than often -nə-, -ne-, -ni- or -no-. If the last vowel of the base form is nasalized, it can sometimes lose nasalization in the forms with the added syllable. This forms are regarded as irregular and, in earlier texts, they can display many alternatives: for example the word swõnur has earlier alternatives like accusative plural swonũ or oblique plural swõnošũ, already fallen out of use in modern texts.
| | '''ṫjejm-''' → '''ṫjejm-''' + '''-i-''' → '''ṫjejmi''' |
| | <small>''interr.'' → ''which?''</small> |
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| Some nouns, whose roots end in a consonant cluster, can insert an euphonic vowel -ə- between these consonants in the accusative singular form.
| | As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun. |
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| An example is shown below: moɣžur, ''herd''.
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| {|- | | {|- |
| |- | | |- |
| | || colspan="2" | <center>moɣžur</center> | | | || colspan="2" | <center>''who? / what?''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''how much? / how many?''</center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> | | | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 100px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''basic''</small></center> || moɣžur || moɣžurĩ | | | <center><small>''ergative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmek̇ə''' || '''ṫjejmejk̇ə''' || '''sjowpek̇ə''' || '''sjowpejk̇ə''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || moɣəž || moɣžũ | | | <center><small>''absolutive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejme''' || '''ṫjejmej''' || '''sjowpe''' || '''sjowpej''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || moɣžuš || moɣžušũ | | | <center><small>''possessive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeṗu''' || '''ṫjejmejṗu''' || '''sjowpeṗu''' || '''sjowpejṗu''' |
| |} | |
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| The euphonic vowel is added only when the consonant cluster is unacceptable in final position according to phonotactical rules. When the consonant is accepted, no vowel is inserted.
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| A small amount of nouns diplay irregular plural endings:
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| {|-
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| |- | | |- |
| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
| | | <center><small>''terminative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʈu''' || '''ṫjejmejʈu''' || '''sjowpeʈu''' || '''sjowpejʈu''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''nominative''</small></center> || -ir | | | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeʡo''' || '''ṫjejmejʡo''' || '''sjowpeʡo''' || '''sjowpejʡo''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''accusative''</small></center> || -i | | | <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmeno''' || '''ṫjejmejno''' || '''sjowpeno''' || '''sjowpejno''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || -iš | | | <center><small>''benefactive''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmepə''' || '''ṫjejmejpə''' || '''sjowpepə''' || '''sjowpejpə''' |
| |}
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| This endings usually trigger irregular consonantal and vocalic changes in the noun root (often due to methaponic processes).
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| An example is shown below: roɣur, ''eye''.
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| {|-
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| |- | |
| | || colspan="2" | <center>roɣur</center> | |
| |-
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| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
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| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''basic''</small></center> || roɣur || ruɣir | | | <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmema''' || '''ṫjejmejma''' || '''sjowpema''' || '''sjowpejma''' |
| |- | | |- |
| | <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || rog || ruɣi | | | <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || '''ṫjejmewa''' || '''ṫjejmejwa''' || '''sjowpewa''' || '''sjowpejwa''' |
| |- | |
| | <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || roɣuš || ruɣiš | |
| |} | | |} |
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| From the previous example it can be noticed that nouns, whose nominative singular form ends in -ɣur, usually display an accusative singular form ending in -g.
| | The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case: |
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| Altri nomi, invece, presentano invece decise irregolarità, sia vocaliche che consonantiche, nella radice del nome.
| | * '''ṫjejmewa''': where (<small>static location</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeʈu''': where (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| | * '''ṫjejmeno ''': why (<small>cause</small>) |
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| An example is shown below: rəjr, ''thing''.
| | These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns: |
| {|-
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| |-
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| | || colspan="2" | <center>rəjr</center>
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| |-
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| | style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''basic''</small></center> || rəjr || rəjrĩ
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''direct''</small></center> || ri || rĩ
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| |-
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| | <center><small>''oblique''</small></center> || rəjš || rəjšũ
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| |}
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| As noun declension often display multiple irregularities, in the vocabulary section the accusative singular form is always cited for an irregular noun, while the accusative plural form is cited only when necessary:
| | * '''ṫjejmewa weʡewa''': in which place (<small>static location</small>) |
| *'''swõnur''', <small>''n.'' ('''swõ''')</small>, house. | | * '''ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu''': in which place (<small>motion toward</small>) |
| *'''roɣur''', <small>''n.'' ('''rog''', '''ruɣi''')</small>, eye. | |
Interrogative pronouns
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:
- quality: ṫjejm-
- quantity: sjowp-
When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-.
ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -e- → ṫjejme
interr. → what?, who?
When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-.
ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -i- → ṫjejmi
interr. → which?
As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.
|
who? / what? |
how much? / how many?
|
|
singular |
plural |
singular |
plural
|
| ergative |
ṫjejmek̇ə |
ṫjejmejk̇ə |
sjowpek̇ə |
sjowpejk̇ə
|
| absolutive |
ṫjejme |
ṫjejmej |
sjowpe |
sjowpej
|
| possessive |
ṫjejmeṗu |
ṫjejmejṗu |
sjowpeṗu |
sjowpejṗu
|
| terminative |
ṫjejmeʈu |
ṫjejmejʈu |
sjowpeʈu |
sjowpejʈu
|
| ablative |
ṫjejmeʡo |
ṫjejmejʡo |
sjowpeʡo |
sjowpejʡo
|
| causative |
ṫjejmeno |
ṫjejmejno |
sjowpeno |
sjowpejno
|
| benefactive |
ṫjejmepə |
ṫjejmejpə |
sjowpepə |
sjowpejpə
|
| instrumental |
ṫjejmema |
ṫjejmejma |
sjowpema |
sjowpejma
|
| locative |
ṫjejmewa |
ṫjejmejwa |
sjowpewa |
sjowpejwa
|
The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:
- ṫjejmewa: where (static location)
- ṫjejmeʈu: where (motion toward)
- ṫjejmeno : why (cause)
These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:
- ṫjejmewa weʡewa: in which place (static location)
- ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu: in which place (motion toward)
