Cärähə morphology: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 07:24, 16 September 2025

Main article: Cärähə

This page gives an extensive description of Cärähə morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in Cärähə language end predominantly in a vowel. A certain amount of nouns, however, ends in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, mostly -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns display neither gender nor class distinction. There are, however, two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural. Whether a noun is deemed as definite or indefinite, a form of article is generally used and placed before it, with a few exceptions.

There is no case system.

Articles

There are two articles, the indefinite article, xah, and the definite article, äs. The definite article agrees with the noun in number, while the indefinite article displays only the singular form.

	singular	plural
indefinite	xah	-
definite	äs	äsən

Both articles are always placed before the noun.

The definite article, both in its singular and plural forms, can merge with some prepositions to form the so-called articled prepositions. Such forms will be analyzed in a following section.

Plural

Nouns are declined in number by adding the following ending to the base form of the noun:

singular	plural
-	-nə

Some examples are shown below: bäb́ə, father, and sohə, house.

bäb́ə		sohə
singular	plural	singular	plural
bäb́ə	bäb́ənə	sohə	sohənə

Nouns ending in a consonantin their base form, mostly loanwords, usually add a euphonic vowel before the endings of the other cases. This vowel is generally -ə-, but other vowels are also possible, like -ü-.

Some irregular nouns, conversely, change their last vowel in the root before adding the plural ending. The commonest change is ə → u. A lot of these nouns display both irregular and regular forms, especially in earlier texts. In modern texts the amount of irregular forms is extremely limited, with a strong tendency towards regularization by analogy.

sing. bäb́ənə → plur. bäb́unə.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, usually showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed after the nouns they specify, with a few exceptions, while predicative adjectives are always placed after the verb.

äs wīrə çoba
the young man

äs wīrə cän çoba 
the man is young

All adjectives agree in number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal ending.

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Adjectival declension follow the same rules as the nominal declension, with the same exceptions.

Example: xürü, big, with sohə, house

singular	plural
sohə xürü	sohənə xürünə

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns feature a distinction between three forms. The first form is used as the subject of the clauses, for every kind of verbs. The second form is used as the direct object of the clause, for transitive verbs, and with every preposition requiring the direct case. The third form is used as the indirect object of the clause, for ditransitive verbs.

Moreover, the first two persons (1^st and 2^nd) have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension. On the other hand, the 3^rdperson has only one root, displaying, however, a similar irregular declension.

	1^st sing.	2^nd sing.	3^rd sing.	1^st plur.	2^nd plur.	3^rd plur.
subject	üd́ə	ird́ə	jäsrə	üd́unə	ird́unə	jäsrunə
direct object	çə	nä	jäs	çunə	nänə	jäsnə
indirect object	çərä	närä	järä	çunərä	nänərä	jäsnərä

When used alone, the forms for the direct and indirect object tend to be placed before the conjugated verb in the sentence. Their positioning after the verb is regarded as a marked position.

Examples:

üd́ə jäs rurīsü wī
I didn't see him

üd́ə rurīsü wī jäs
As for him, I didn't see him

Anyway, these pronouns are placed after the negative adverb.

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).

what: sä
who: xa

Both pronouns display only the singular number forms.

gö xa guŕähir süci?
whom did you give water to?

There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):

säruɕ: where (static location and motion toward)
säruk: why (cause)
säcuho: when
sämün: how much
säŕap: how

There are also the following interrogative adjectives:

sähə: which
sämüni: how much / many

In earlier texts the interrogative adjective xahə can be found, which is placed exclusively before nouns referring to animate entities. Usage of this form is regarded as obsolete in the modern language.

Such adjectives, like the demonstrative adjectives, tend to be placed before their nouns and they are never used with the article.

Within an interrogative clause, pronouns usually are usually moved at the beginning of the sentence. Their syntactical position is regarded as extremely marked.

sämüninə çähinə xehīxir?
how many sheep do you have?

In addition, like other parts of the sentences, they can be introduced by prepositions:

gü xa sähiŕuhir?
whom are you talking about?

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
1:	xahə
2:	hähü
3:	mügo
4:	gori
5:	sehi
6:	türä
7:	xäsä
8:	cuhi
9:	ɕoçə
10:	pehə

Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + nä + pehə, with some irregularities:

digit	noun form
11:	xanäpehə
12:	hähünäpehə
13:	mügonäpehə
14:	gorinäpehə
15:	sehinäpehə
16:	türänäpehə
17:	xäsänäpehə
18:	cuhinäpehə
19:	ɕoçunäpehə

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
100:	naćə
1000:	wüha

The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + ped́unə / naćunə / wühad́unə, with some irregularities:

	tens	hundreds	thousands
2x:	hähüped́unə	hähünaćunə	hähüwühad́unə
3x:	mügoped́unə	mügonaćunə	mügowühad́unə
4x:	goriped́unə	gorinaćunə	goriwühad́unə
5x:	sehiped́unə	sehinaćunə	sehiwühad́unə
6x:	türäped́unə	türänaćunə	türäwühad́unə
7x:	xäsäped́unə	xäsänaćunə	xäsäwühad́unə
8x:	cuhiped́unə	cuhinaćunə	cuhiwühad́unə
9x:	ɕoçuped́unə	ɕoçunaćunə	ɕoçuwühad́unə

The numerals for “million” and “billion” are nominal forms on their own (both are adapted loanwords from Iðâɣ language):

digit	noun form
1,000,000:	sürentə (from I. šúrěntu)
1,000,000,000:	mesürentə (from I. mêšúrěntu)

These forms are treated as regularly declinable nouns:

digit	noun form
3,000,000:	mügo sürentənə
6,000,000,000:	türä mesürentənə

Nouns adjoining such numerals are introduced by the preposition cär, or, in some dialectal variants, directly without any preposition:

hähü sürentənə cär pühänə
two millions people

mügo mesürentənə pühänə
three billions people (dialectal variant)

Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

1985: wüha ɕoçənaćunə cuhiped́unə sehi

When cardinal numbers have an adjective-like function, or when they are used as as simple count forms, they are meant as indeclinable forms (except for "million" and "billion").

äs sohə cäsən mügo maɟudünə çərä 
my three friends' house

xahə, hähü, mügo, gori, ...
one, two, three, four, ...

Every numeral, however, can also have a pronominal function. In this case, it is possible to use them without an adjoining noun, by using the article, usually the definite one.

äs sohə cäsən mügo
the house of those three (people)

äsən wüha
the one thousand

There is, moreover, an additional pronoun-like irregular numeral, hähühü, meaning "both". It is meant as an indeclinable form, and it is never used with any article. The verb agrees with this form in the plural number.

äs sohə cär hähühü
the house of both (of them)

hähühü süxähun
they both walked out

In the earlier modern period mathematicians conceive and introduce the idea of “zero”, and its digit form. The noun for this new numeral, xesüɕä, is created from the Biwdiw word xēsjušɛ, nothing. This name is then quickly shortened to its first two syllables. This numeral is however usually limited to mathematics:

digit	noun form
0:	xesü

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -ro to the cardinal numeral form, with some irregularities:

digit	adjective form
1^st:	xahuro
2^nd:	hähüro
3^rd:	mügoro
4^th:	goriro
5^th:	sehiro
6^th:	türäro
7^th:	xäsäro
8^th:	cuhiro
9^th:	ɕoçuro
10^th:	pehuro
11^th:	xanäpehuro
12^th:	hähünäpehuro
20^th:	hähüped́unuro
60^th:	türäped́unuro

Ordinal numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are slightly irregularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only adjectival word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000^th:	sürenturo
1,000,000,000^th:	mesürenturo
3,000,000,000^th:	mügomesürenturo

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

25^th: hähüped́unə sehiro

Verbs

The verbal system of Cärähə language displays the following features:

tense:
- simple tenses: present, past
- compound tenses: present continuous, past continuous, perfect, pluperfect, future, anterior future, future in the past
mood:
- definite moods: indicative, subjunctive, optative, potential
- indefinite moods: infinitive, active participle, passive participle
diathesis: active, passive

Each verb has two roots, the present root (R_pres) and the past root (R_past). The base form is the present root, while the past root is usually derived fromt he present one. . The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV₁CV₂C → CV₂CV₁C

Example:

R_imp = moɕäd- → R_prf = mäɕod-

This process may give rise to irregular root forms.

R_pres = ǵärug- → R_past = guŕäg-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowels involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

R_pres = secerun- → R_past = securen-

R_pres = sühisuh- → R_past = sihüsuh-

R_pres = x́äsähirih- → R_past = x́äsihärih-

Some verbs, many of them neologisms or loanwords, derive their past root from the present one by adding the suffix -ig, without any vowel switching:

CV₁CV₂C → CV₁CV₂Cig

Example:

R_pres = çurühuh- → R_past = çurühuhig-

The verb cänühä, to be, display a totally irregular past root:

R_pres = cän- → R_past = häcän-

Likewise, other monosyllabic verbs are treated as irregular verbs.

The citation form of verbs is the present infinitive, marked by the ending -ühä. From such form the present verbal root can be inferred and can be changed in every other verbal form.

All verbs are divided in two classes, depending on the outcome of the third singular person. In the first class (class I), the ending -äh is used, with some possible irregularities, while in the second class (class II), a null ending is used, with a more regular outcome. Verbs with a past root built with the suffix -ig- belong always to the class II, creating thus a subgroup, known as class IIg.

In simple tenses the following personal endings are added to the verbal root. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

	class I	class II
1^st sing.	-ü	-ü
2^nd sing.	-ir	-ir
3^rd sing.	-́äh	-
1^st plur.	-unü	-unü
2^nd plur.	-unir	-unir
3^rd plur.	-uńäh	-un

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

indicative: Ø
subjunctive: -ün-
optative: -us-
potential: -äɕ-

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings. As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots.

The non-finite endings are:

infinitive: -ühä
active participle: -īdə
passive participle: -́uhi

The passive particle ending may cause irregularities to arise in the roots.

Conjugation of regular verbs

Sample verbs: as a class I verb, moɕädühä, to pick up, to collect, as a class II verb, xixehühä, to fall, as a class IIg verb, pürücühä, to hit

Active diathesis

Indicative mood

Present tense

The present is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the present root:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	moɕädü	xixehü	pürücü
2^nd sing.	moɕädir	xixehir	pürücir
3^rd sing.	moɕäd́äh	xixeg	pürüc
1^st plur.	moɕädunü	xixehunü	pürücunü
2^nd plur.	moɕädunir	xixehunir	pürücunir
3^rd plur.	moɕäduńäh	xixehun	pürücun

In the 3^rd singular person, which features the ending -́äh or null ending, irregularities may often occur.

The ending -́äh always causes palatalization of the preceding consonant, if this consonant has a palatalized counterpart.

rīrusühä → rīruśäh
to see → he/she/it sees

If the involved consonant does not have any palatalized counterparts, the ending is added to the root without any further palatalizing effect.

The null ending causes less often irregularities, like altering the last root consonant:

ṕőrühä → ṕőw
to fly→ he/she/it flies

Past tense

The past is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the past root:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	mäɕodü	xexihü	pürücigü
2^nd sing.	mäɕodir	xexihir	pürücigir
3^rd sing.	mäɕod́äh	xexig	pürücig
1^st plur.	mäɕodunü	xexihunü	pürücigunü
2^nd plur.	mäɕodunir	xexihunir	pürücigunir
3^rd plur.	mäɕoduńäh	xexihun	pürücigun

In the 3^rd singular person, which features the ending -́äh or null ending, irregularities may often occur.

The ending -́äh always causes palatalization of the preceding consonant, if this consonant has a palatalized counterpart.

rīrusühä → rurīśäh
to see → he/she/it saw

If the involved consonant does not have any palatalized counterparts, the ending is added to the root without any further palatalizing effect.

The null ending causes less often irregularities, like altering the last root consonant:

ṕőrühä → ṕöw
to fly→ he/she/it flew

In the class IIg irregularities never occur in the past tense.

Present continuous tense

The present countinuous is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänü moɕädīdə	cänü xixehīdə	cänü pürücīdə
2^nd sing.	cänir moɕädīdə	cänir xixehīdə	cänir pürücīdə
3^rd sing.	cän moɕädīdə	cän xixehīdə	cän pürücīdə
1^st plur.	cänunü moɕädīdənə	cänunü xixehīdənə	cänunü pürücīdənə
2^nd plur.	cänunir moɕädīdənə	cänunir xixehīdənə	cänunir pürücīdənə
3^rd plur.	cänun moɕädīdənə	cänun xixehīdənə	cänun pürücīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Past continuous tense

The past countinuous is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänü moɕädīdə	häcänü xixehīdə	häcänü pürücīdə
2^nd sing.	häcänir moɕädīdə	häcänir xixehīdə	häcänir pürücīdə
3^rd sing.	häcän moɕädīdə	häcän xixehīdə	häcän pürücīdə
1^st plur.	häcänunü moɕädīdənə	häcänunü xixehīdənə	häcänunü pürücīdənə
2^nd plur.	häcänunir moɕädīdənə	häcänunir xixehīdənə	häcänunir pürücīdənə
3^rd plur.	häcänun moɕädīdənə	häcänun xixehīdənə	häcänun pürücīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Perfect tense

The perfect is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänü mäɕodīdə	cänü xexihīdə	cänü pürücigīdə
2^nd sing.	cänir mäɕodīdə	cänir xexihīdə	cänir pürücigīdə
3^rd sing.	cän mäɕodīdə	cän xexihīdə	cän pürücigīdə
1^st plur.	cänunü mäɕodīdənə	cänunü xexihīdənə	cänunü pürücigīdənə
2^nd plur.	cänunir mäɕodīdənə	cänunir xexihīdənə	cänunir pürücigīdənə
3^rd plur.	cänun mäɕodīdənə	cänun xexihīdənə	cänun pürücigīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Pluperfect tense

The pluperfect is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänü mäɕodīdə	häcänü xexihīdə	häcänü pürücigīdə
2^nd sing.	häcänir mäɕodīdə	häcänir xexihīdə	häcänir pürücigīdə
3^rd sing.	häcän mäɕodīdə	häcän xexihīdə	häcän pürücigīdə
1^st plur.	häcänunü mäɕodīdənə	häcänunü xexihīdənə	häcänunü pürücigīdənə
2^nd plur.	häcänunir mäɕodīdənə	häcänunir xexihīdənə	häcänunir pürücigīdənə
3^rd plur.	häcänun mäɕodīdənə	häcänun xexihīdənə	häcänun pürücigīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Future tense

The future is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänü moɕädühä	cänü xixehühä	cänü pürücühä
2^nd sing.	cänir moɕädühä	cänir xixehühä	cänir pürücühä
3^rd sing.	cän moɕädühä	cän xixehühä	cän pürücühä
1^st plur.	cänunü moɕädühä	cänunü xixehühä	cänunü pürücühä
2^nd plur.	cänunir moɕädühä	cänunir xixehühä	cänunir pürücühä
3^rd plur.	cänun moɕädühä	cänun xixehühä	cänun pürücühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Anterior future tense

The anterior future is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänü mäɕodühä	cänü xexihühä	cänü pürücigühä
2^nd sing.	cänir mäɕodühä	cänir xexihühä	cänir pürücigühä
3^rd sing.	cän mäɕodühä	cän xexihühä	cän pürücigühä
1^st plur.	cänunü mäɕodühä	cänunü xexihühä	cänunü pürücigühä
2^nd plur.	cänunir mäɕodühä	cänunir xexihühä	cänunir pürücigühä
3^rd plur.	cänun mäɕodühä	cänun xexihühä	cänun pürücigühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Future in the past tense

The future in the past is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänü moɕädühä	häcänü xixehühä	häcänü pürücühä
2^nd sing.	häcänir moɕädühä	häcänir xixehühä	häcänir pürücühä
3^rd sing.	häcän moɕädühä	häcän xixehühä	häcän pürücühä
1^st plur.	häcänunü moɕädühä	häcänunü xixehühä	häcänunü pürücühä
2^nd plur.	häcänunir moɕädühä	häcänunir xixehühä	häcänunir pürücühä
3^rd plur.	häcänun moɕädühä	häcänun xixehühä	häcänun pürücühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is mostly used in dependent clauses. Its usage in main clauses is quite limited, except for its role as an imperative an exhortative form.

The subjunctive widely features the infix -ün-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings.

Present tense

The present is a simple tense. The infix -ün- and the personal endings are added to the present root:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	moɕädünü	xixehünü	pürücünü
2^nd sing.	moɕädünir	xixehünir	pürücünir
3^rd sing.	moɕädüńäh	xixehün	pürücün
1^st plur.	moɕädünunü	xixehünunü	pürücünunü
2^nd plur.	moɕädünunir	xixehünunir	pürücünunir
3^rd plur.	moɕädünuńäh	xixehünun	pürücünun

In the 3^rd singular person, in the classes II and IIg irregularities never occur, while in the class I, the ending palatalizes the subjunctive infix into -üń-.

Past tense

The past is a simple tense. The infix -ün- and the personal endings are added to the past root:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	mäɕodünü	xexihünü	pürücigünü
2^nd sing.	mäɕodünir	xexihünir	pürücigünir
3^rd sing.	mäɕodüńäh	xexihün	pürücigün
1^st plur.	mäɕodünunü	xexihünunü	pürücigünunü
2^nd plur.	mäɕodünunir	xexihünunir	pürücigünunir
3^rd plur.	mäɕodünuńäh	xexihünun	pürücigünun

In the 3^rd singular person, in the classes II and IIg irregularities never occur, while in the class I, the ending palatalizes the subjunctive infix into -üń-.

Present continuous tense

The present countinuous is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänünü moɕädīdə	cänünü xixehīdə	cänünü pürücīdə
2^nd sing.	cänünir moɕädīdə	cänünir xixehīdə	cänünir pürücīdə
3^rd sing.	cänün moɕädīdə	cänün xixehīdə	cänün pürücīdə
1^st plur.	cänünunü moɕädīdənə	cänünunü xixehīdənə	cänünunü pürücīdənə
2^nd plur.	cänünunir moɕädīdənə	cänünunir xixehīdənə	cänünunir pürücīdənə
3^rd plur.	cänünun moɕädīdənə	cänünun xixehīdənə	cänünun pürücīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Past continuous tense

The past countinuous is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänünü moɕädīdə	häcänünü xixehīdə	häcänünü pürücīdə
2^nd sing.	häcänünir moɕädīdə	häcänünir xixehīdə	häcänünir pürücīdə
3^rd sing.	häcänün moɕädīdə	häcänün xixehīdə	häcänün pürücīdə
1^st plur.	häcänünunü moɕädīdənə	häcänünunü xixehīdənə	häcänünunü pürücīdənə
2^nd plur.	häcänünunir moɕädīdənə	häcänünunir xixehīdənə	häcänünunir pürücīdənə
3^rd plur.	häcänünun moɕädīdənə	häcänünun xixehīdənə	häcänünun pürücīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Perfect tense

The perfect is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänünü mäɕodīdə	cänünü xexihīdə	cänünü pürücigīdə
2^nd sing.	cänünir mäɕodīdə	cänünir xexihīdə	cänünir pürücigīdə
3^rd sing.	cänün mäɕodīdə	cänün xexihīdə	cänün pürücigīdə
1^st plur.	cänünunü mäɕodīdənə	cänünunü xexihīdənə	cänünunü pürücigīdənə
2^nd plur.	cänünunir mäɕodīdənə	cänünunir xexihīdənə	cänünunir pürücigīdənə
3^rd plur.	cänünun mäɕodīdənə	cänünun xexihīdənə	cänünun pürücigīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Pluperfect tense

The pluperfect is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänünü mäɕodīdə	häcänünü xexihīdə	häcänünü pürücigīdə
2^nd sing.	häcänünir mäɕodīdə	häcänünir xexihīdə	häcänünir pürücigīdə
3^rd sing.	häcänün mäɕodīdə	häcänün xexihīdə	häcänün pürücigīdə
1^st plur.	häcänünunü mäɕodīdənə	häcänünunü xexihīdənə	häcänünunü pürücigīdənə
2^nd plur.	häcänünunir mäɕodīdənə	häcänünunir xexihīdənə	häcänünunir pürücigīdənə
3^rd plur.	häcänünun mäɕodīdənə	häcänünun xexihīdənə	häcänünun pürücigīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Future tense

The future is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänünü moɕädühä	cänünü xixehühä	cänünü pürücühä
2^nd sing.	cänünir moɕädühä	cänünir xixehühä	cänünir pürücühä
3^rd sing.	cänün moɕädühä	cänün xixehühä	cänün pürücühä
1^st plur.	cänünunü moɕädühä	cänünunü xixehühä	cänünunü pürücühä
2^nd plur.	cänünunir moɕädühä	cänünunir xixehühä	cänünunir pürücühä
3^rd plur.	cänünun moɕädühä	cänünun xixehühä	cänünun pürücühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Anterior future tense

The anterior future is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänünü mäɕodühä	cänünü xexihühä	cänünü pürücigühä
2^nd sing.	cänünir mäɕodühä	cänünir xexihühä	cänünir pürücigühä
3^rd sing.	cänün mäɕodühä	cänün xexihühä	cänün pürücigühä
1^st plur.	cänünunü mäɕodühä	cänünunü xexihühä	cänünunü pürücigühä
2^nd plur.	cänünunir mäɕodühä	cänünunir xexihühä	cänünunir pürücigühä
3^rd plur.	cänünun mäɕodühä	cänünun xexihühä	cänünun pürücigühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Future in the past tense

The future in the past is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänünü moɕädühä	häcänünü xixehühä	häcänünü pürücühä
2^nd sing.	häcänünir moɕädühä	häcänünir xixehühä	häcänünir pürücühä
3^rd sing.	häcänün moɕädühä	häcänün xixehühä	häcänün pürücühä
1^st plur.	häcänünunü moɕädühä	häcänünunü xixehühä	häcänünunü pürücühä
2^nd plur.	häcänünunir moɕädühä	häcänünunir xixehühä	häcänünunir pürücühä
3^rd plur.	häcänünun moɕädühä	häcänünun xixehühä	häcänünun pürücühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Optative mood

The optative mood is used to convey wish and desire. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses.

The optative widely features the infix -us-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings.

Present tense

The present is a simple tense. The infix -us- and the personal endings are added to the present root:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	moɕädusü	xixehusü	pürücusü
2^nd sing.	moɕädusir	xixehusir	pürücusir
3^rd sing.	moɕäduśäh	xixehus	pürücus
1^st plur.	moɕädusunü	xixehusunü	pürücusunü
2^nd plur.	moɕädusunir	xixehusunir	pürücusunir
3^rd plur.	moɕädusuńäh	xixehusun	pürücusun

In the 3^rd singular person, in the classes II and IIg irregularities never occur, while in the class I, the ending palatalizes the optative infix into -uś-.

Past tense

The past is a simple tense. The infix -us- and the personal endings are added to the past root:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	mäɕodusü	xexihusü	pürücigusü
2^nd sing.	mäɕodusir	xexihusir	pürücigusir
3^rd sing.	mäɕoduśäh	xexihus	pürücigus
1^st plur.	mäɕodusunü	xexihusunü	pürücigusunü
2^nd plur.	mäɕodusunir	xexihusunir	pürücigusunir
3^rd plur.	mäɕodusuńäh	xexihusun	pürücigusun

In the 3^rd singular person, in the classes II and IIg irregularities never occur, while in the class I, the ending palatalizes the optative infix into -uś-.

Present continuous tense

The present countinuous is a compound tense. It is built with the optative present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänusü moɕädīdə	cänusü xixehīdə	cänusü pürücīdə
2^nd sing.	cänusir moɕädīdə	cänusir xixehīdə	cänusir pürücīdə
3^rd sing.	cänus moɕädīdə	cänus xixehīdə	cänus pürücīdə
1^st plur.	cänusunü moɕädīdənə	cänusunü xixehīdənə	cänusunü pürücīdənə
2^nd plur.	cänusunir moɕädīdənə	cänusunir xixehīdənə	cänusunir pürücīdənə
3^rd plur.	cänusun moɕädīdənə	cänusun xixehīdənə	cänusun pürücīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Past continuous tense

The past countinuous is a compound tense. It is built with the optative past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänusü moɕädīdə	häcänusü xixehīdə	häcänusü pürücīdə
2^nd sing.	häcänusir moɕädīdə	häcänusir xixehīdə	häcänusir pürücīdə
3^rd sing.	häcänus moɕädīdə	häcänus xixehīdə	häcänus pürücīdə
1^st plur.	häcänusunü moɕädīdənə	häcänusunü xixehīdənə	häcänusunü pürücīdənə
2^nd plur.	häcänusunir moɕädīdənə	häcänusunir xixehīdənə	häcänusunir pürücīdənə
3^rd plur.	häcänusun moɕädīdənə	häcänusun xixehīdənə	häcänusun pürücīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Perfect tense

The perfect is a compound tense. It is built with the optative present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänusü mäɕodīdə	cänusü xexihīdə	cänusü pürücigīdə
2^nd sing.	cänusir mäɕodīdə	cänusir xexihīdə	cänusir pürücigīdə
3^rd sing.	cänus mäɕodīdə	cänus xexihīdə	cänus pürücigīdə
1^st plur.	cänusunü mäɕodīdənə	cänusunü xexihīdənə	cänusunü pürücigīdənə
2^nd plur.	cänusunir mäɕodīdənə	cänusunir xexihīdənə	cänusunir pürücigīdənə
3^rd plur.	cänusun mäɕodīdənə	cänusun xexihīdənə	cänusun pürücigīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Pluperfect tense

The pluperfect is a compound tense. It is built with the optative past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänusü mäɕodīdə	häcänusü xexihīdə	häcänusü pürücigīdə
2^nd sing.	häcänusir mäɕodīdə	häcänusir xexihīdə	häcänusir pürücigīdə
3^rd sing.	häcänus mäɕodīdə	häcänus xexihīdə	häcänus pürücigīdə
1^st plur.	häcänusunü mäɕodīdənə	häcänusunü xexihīdənə	häcänusunü pürücigīdənə
2^nd plur.	häcänusunir mäɕodīdənə	häcänusunir xexihīdənə	häcänusunir pürücigīdənə
3^rd plur.	häcänusun mäɕodīdənə	häcänusun xexihīdənə	häcänusun pürücigīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Future tense

The future is a compound tense. It is built with the optative present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänusü moɕädühä	cänusü xixehühä	cänusü pürücühä
2^nd sing.	cänusir moɕädühä	cänusir xixehühä	cänusir pürücühä
3^rd sing.	cänus moɕädühä	cänus xixehühä	cänus pürücühä
1^st plur.	cänusunü moɕädühä	cänusunü xixehühä	cänusunü pürücühä
2^nd plur.	cänusunir moɕädühä	cänusunir xixehühä	cänusunir pürücühä
3^rd plur.	cänusun moɕädühä	cänusun xixehühä	cänusun pürücühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Anterior future tense

The anterior future is a compound tense. It is built with the optative present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cänusü mäɕodühä	cänusü xexihühä	cänusü pürücigühä
2^nd sing.	cänusir mäɕodühä	cänusir xexihühä	cänusir pürücigühä
3^rd sing.	cänus mäɕodühä	cänus xexihühä	cänus pürücigühä
1^st plur.	cänusunü mäɕodühä	cänusunü xexihühä	cänusunü pürücigühä
2^nd plur.	cänusunir mäɕodühä	cänusunir xexihühä	cänusunir pürücigühä
3^rd plur.	cänusun mäɕodühä	cänusun xexihühä	cänusun pürücigühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Future in the past tense

The future in the past is a compound tense. It is built with the optative past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcänusü moɕädühä	häcänusü xixehühä	häcänusü pürücühä
2^nd sing.	häcänusir moɕädühä	häcänusir xixehühä	häcänusir pürücühä
3^rd sing.	häcänus moɕädühä	häcänus xixehühä	häcänus pürücühä
1^st plur.	häcänusunü moɕädühä	häcänusunü xixehühä	häcänusunü pürücühä
2^nd plur.	häcänusunir moɕädühä	häcänusunir xixehühä	häcänusunir pürücühä
3^rd plur.	häcänusun moɕädühä	häcänusun xixehühä	häcänusun pürücühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Potential mood

The potential mood is used to convey potentiality and probability. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses.

The potential widely features the infix -äɕ-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings. This infix can cause irregularities, because it palatalizes every consonant, which has a palatalized counteparts. This makes the potential the richest mood in irregularities.

Present tense

The present is a simple tense. The infix -äɕ-, which often palatalizes the last consonant of the root, and the personal endings are added to the present root:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	moɕäd́äɕü	xixeh́äɕü	pürüćäɕü
2^nd sing.	moɕäd́äɕir	xixeh́äɕir	pürüćäɕir
3^rd sing.	moɕäd́äɕäh	xixeh́äɕ	pürüćäɕ
1^st plur.	moɕäd́äɕunü	xixeh́äɕunü	pürüćäɕunü
2^nd plur.	moɕäd́äɕunir	xixeh́äɕunir	pürüćäɕunir
3^rd plur.	moɕäd́äɕuńäh	xixeh́äɕun	pürüćäɕun

Since the consonant of the potential infix -äɕ- has no palatalized counterpart, in the 3^rd singular person the personal endings of the classes can cause no further irregularities.

Past tense

The past is a simple tense. The infix -äɕ-, which often palatalizes the last consonant of the root, and the personal endings are added to the past root:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	mäɕod́äɕü	xexih́äɕü	pürüciǵäɕü
2^nd sing.	mäɕod́äɕir	xexih́äɕir	pürüciǵäɕir
3^rd sing.	mäɕod́äɕäh	xexih́äɕ	pürüciǵäɕ
1^st plur.	mäɕod́äɕunü	xexih́äɕunü	pürüciǵäɕunü
2^nd plur.	mäɕod́äɕunir	xexih́äɕunir	pürüciǵäɕunir
3^rd plur.	mäɕod́äɕuńäh	xexih́äɕun	pürüciǵäɕun

Since the consonant of the potential infix -äɕ- has no palatalized counterpart, in the 3^rd singular person the personal endings of the classes can cause no further irregularities.

Present continuous tense

The present countinuous is a compound tense. It is built with the potential present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cäńäɕü moɕädīdə	cäńäɕü xixehīdə	cäńäɕü pürücīdə
2^nd sing.	cäńäɕir moɕädīdə	cäńäɕir xixehīdə	cäńäɕir pürücīdə
3^rd sing.	cäńäɕ moɕädīdə	cäńäɕ xixehīdə	cäńäɕ pürücīdə
1^st plur.	cäńäɕunü moɕädīdənə	cäńäɕunü xixehīdənə	cäńäɕunü pürücīdənə
2^nd plur.	cäńäɕunir moɕädīdənə	cäńäɕunir xixehīdənə	cäńäɕunir pürücīdənə
3^rd plur.	cäńäɕun moɕädīdənə	cäńäɕun xixehīdənə	cäńäɕun pürücīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Past continuous tense

The past countinuous is a compound tense. It is built with the potential past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcäńäɕü moɕädīdə	häcäńäɕü xixehīdə	häcäńäɕü pürücīdə
2^nd sing.	häcäńäɕir moɕädīdə	häcäńäɕir xixehīdə	häcäńäɕir pürücīdə
3^rd sing.	häcäńäɕ moɕädīdə	häcäńäɕ xixehīdə	häcäńäɕ pürücīdə
1^st plur.	häcäńäɕunü moɕädīdənə	häcäńäɕunü xixehīdənə	häcäńäɕunü pürücīdənə
2^nd plur.	häcäńäɕunir moɕädīdənə	häcäńäɕunir xixehīdənə	häcäńäɕunir pürücīdənə
3^rd plur.	häcäńäɕun moɕädīdənə	häcäńäɕun xixehīdənə	häcäńäɕun pürücīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Perfect tense

The perfect is a compound tense. It is built with the potential present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cäńäɕü mäɕodīdə	cäńäɕü xexihīdə	cäńäɕü pürücigīdə
2^nd sing.	cäńäɕir mäɕodīdə	cäńäɕir xexihīdə	cäńäɕir pürücigīdə
3^rd sing.	cäńäɕ mäɕodīdə	cäńäɕ xexihīdə	cäńäɕ pürücigīdə
1^st plur.	cäńäɕunü mäɕodīdənə	cäńäɕunü xexihīdənə	cäńäɕunü pürücigīdənə
2^nd plur.	cäńäɕunir mäɕodīdənə	cäńäɕunir xexihīdənə	cäńäɕunir pürücigīdənə
3^rd plur.	cäńäɕun mäɕodīdənə	cäńäɕun xexihīdənə	cäńäɕun pürücigīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Pluperfect tense

The pluperfect is a compound tense. It is built with the potential past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcäńäɕü mäɕodīdə	häcäńäɕü xexihīdə	häcäńäɕü pürücigīdə
2^nd sing.	häcäńäɕir mäɕodīdə	häcäńäɕir xexihīdə	häcäńäɕir pürücigīdə
3^rd sing.	häcäńäɕ mäɕodīdə	häcäńäɕ xexihīdə	häcäńäɕ pürücigīdə
1^st plur.	häcäńäɕunü mäɕodīdənə	häcäńäɕunü xexihīdənə	häcäńäɕunü pürücigīdənə
2^nd plur.	häcäńäɕunir mäɕodīdənə	häcäńäɕunir xexihīdənə	häcäńäɕunir pürücigīdənə
3^rd plur.	häcäńäɕun mäɕodīdənə	häcäńäɕun xexihīdənə	häcäńäɕun pürücigīdənə

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Future tense

The future is a compound tense. It is built with the potential present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cäńäɕü moɕädühä	cäńäɕü xixehühä	cäńäɕü pürücühä
2^nd sing.	cäńäɕir moɕädühä	cäńäɕir xixehühä	cäńäɕir pürücühä
3^rd sing.	cäńäɕ moɕädühä	cäńäɕ xixehühä	cäńäɕ pürücühä
1^st plur.	cäńäɕunü moɕädühä	cäńäɕunü xixehühä	cäńäɕunü pürücühä
2^nd plur.	cäńäɕunir moɕädühä	cäńäɕunir xixehühä	cäńäɕunir pürücühä
3^rd plur.	cäńäɕun moɕädühä	cäńäɕun xixehühä	cäńäɕun pürücühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Anterior future tense

The anterior future is a compound tense. It is built with the potential present forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active past infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	cäńäɕü mäɕodühä	cäńäɕü xexihühä	cäńäɕü pürücigühä
2^nd sing.	cäńäɕir mäɕodühä	cäńäɕir xexihühä	cäńäɕir pürücigühä
3^rd sing.	cäńäɕ mäɕodühä	cäńäɕ xexihühä	cäńäɕ pürücigühä
1^st plur.	cäńäɕunü mäɕodühä	cäńäɕunü xexihühä	cäńäɕunü pürücigühä
2^nd plur.	cäńäɕunir mäɕodühä	cäńäɕunir xexihühä	cäńäɕunir pürücigühä
3^rd plur.	cäńäɕun mäɕodühä	cäńäɕun xexihühä	cäńäɕun pürücigühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Future in the past tense

The future in the past is a compound tense. It is built with the potential past forms of the verb cänühä, to be, with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

	class I	class II	class IIg
1^st sing.	häcäńäɕü moɕädühä	häcäńäɕü xixehühä	häcäńäɕü pürücühä
2^nd sing.	häcäńäɕir moɕädühä	häcäńäɕir xixehühä	häcäńäɕir pürücühä
3^rd sing.	häcäńäɕ moɕädühä	häcäńäɕ xixehühä	häcäńäɕ pürücühä
1^st plur.	häcäńäɕunü moɕädühä	häcäńäɕunü xixehühä	häcäńäɕunü pürücühä
2^nd plur.	häcäńäɕunir moɕädühä	häcäńäɕunir xixehühä	häcäńäɕunir pürücühä
3^rd plur.	häcäńäɕun moɕädühä	häcäńäɕun xixehühä	häcäńäɕun pürücühä

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

The 3^rd person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, essere, displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.

Non-finite forms

The non-finite verbal forms are:

Infinitive

It is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and it is not conjugated in person or number. It has, however, a present and a past form, respectively built on the present root and on the past root. It is marked by the ending -ühä.

	class I	class II	class IIg
present	moɕädühä	xixehühä	pürücühä
past	mäɕodühä	xexihühä	pürücigühä

The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb and it can be declined also in the plural number in this function. In this function it is also usually adjoined by the articles.

äs xemunühä
the food

Participle

There are two participial forms, the active participle and the passive participle. Both infinitives have a present and a past form, respectively built on the present root and on the preterite root. As they are adjectival forms, they are both declined as such.

The active participle is formed through the ending -īdə, added to both roots.

	class I	class II	class IIg
present	moɕädīdə	xixehīdə	pürücīdə
past	mäɕodīdə	xexihīdə	pürücigīdə

The passive participle is formed through the ending -́uhi, added to both roots.

	class I	class II	class IIg
present	moɕäd́uhi	xixeh́uhi	pürüćuhi
past	mäɕod́uhi	xexih́uhi	pürüciǵuhi

Irregularities tend to occur often in the forms of the passive particles, since the ending -́uhi systematically palatalizes all preceding consonants, which have a palatalized counterpart. This makes the potential one of the richest moods in irregularities.

The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. It is sometimes used to build relative clauses. As an adjectival form it is declined in number, even in its verbal function.

The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. It is widely used both in the verbal conjugation to build the passive forms and as an adjective. As an adjectival form it is declined in number, even in its verbal function.

Besides its verbal or adjectival role, in some cases the participle may be used as noun, if preceded by the article.

äs mäɕod́uhi
the harvest

Passive diathesis

The passive diathesis displays only compound forms, in every mood and tense. These forms are always built through the auxiliary verb cänühä, to be with the various forms of the passive participle.

The usage of the different moods and tenses is exactly the same as the active diathesis. However, the passive diathesis completely lacks any continuous tense. The passive particles always agree with the clause subject in number.

Indicative mood

Tense	Construction
present	indicative present forms of cänühä + present passive participle
past	indicative past forms of cänühä + present passive participle
perfect	indicative present forms of cänühä + past passive participle
plusperfect	indicative past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
future	indicative future forms of cänühä + present passive participle
anterior future	indicative future forms of cänühä + past passive participle
future in the past	indicative future in the past forms of cänühä + past passive participle

Examples (for each tense only the 1^st person singular form of the verb moɕädühä is shown):

Tense	Example
present	cänü moɕäd́uhi, ...
past	häcänü moɕäd́uhi, ...
perfect	cänü mäɕod́uhi, ...
plusperfect	häcänü mäɕod́uhi, ...
future	cänü cänühä moɕäd́uhi, ...
anterior future	cänü cänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
future in the past	häcänü häcänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...

Subjunctive mood

Tense	Construction
present	subjunctive present forms of cänühä + present passive participle
past	subjunctive past forms of cänühä + present passive participle
perfect	subjunctive present forms of cänühä + past passive participle
plusperfect	subjunctive past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
future	subjunctive future forms of cänühä + present passive participle
anterior future	subjunctive future forms of cänühä + past passive participle
future in the past	subjunctive future in the past forms of cänühä + past passive participle

Examples (for each tense only the 1^st person singular form of the verb moɕädühä is shown):

Tense	Example
present	cänünü moɕäd́uhi, ...
past	häcänünü moɕäd́uhi, ...
perfect	cänünü mäɕod́uhi, ...
plusperfect	häcänünü mäɕod́uhi, ...
future	cänünü cänühä moɕäd́uhi, ...
anterior future	cänünü cänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
future in the past	häcänünü häcänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...

Optative mood

Tense	Construction
present	optative present forms of cänühä + present passive participle
past	optative past forms of cänühä + present passive participle
perfect	optative present forms of cänühä + past passive participle
plusperfect	optative past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
future	optative future forms of cänühä + present passive participle
anterior future	optative future forms of cänühä + past passive participle
future in the past	optative future in the past forms of cänühä + past passive participle

Examples (for each tense only the 1^st person singular form of the verb moɕädühä is shown):

Tense	Example
present	cänusü moɕäd́uhi, ...
past	häcänusü moɕäd́uhi, ...
perfect	cänusü mäɕod́uhi, ...
plusperfect	häcänusü mäɕod́uhi, ...
future	cänusü cänühä moɕäd́uhi, ...
anterior future	cänusü cänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
future in the past	häcänusü häcänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...

Potential mood

Tense	Construction
present	potential present forms of cänühä + present passive participle
past	potential past forms of cänühä + present passive participle
perfect	potential present forms of cänühä + past passive participle
plusperfect	potential past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
future	potential future forms of cänühä + present passive participle
anterior future	potential future forms of cänühä + past passive participle
future in the past	potential future in the past forms of cänühä + past passive participle

Examples (for each tense only the 1^st person singular form of the verb moɕädühä is shown):

Tense	Example
present	cäńäɕü moɕäd́uhi, ...
past	häcäńäɕü moɕäd́uhi, ...
perfect	cäńäɕü mäɕod́uhi, ...
plusperfect	häcäńäɕü mäɕod́uhi, ...
future	cäńäɕü cänühä moɕäd́uhi, ...
anterior future	cäńäɕü cänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
future in the past	häcäńäɕü häcänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...

Infinitive mood

Tense	Construction
present	infinitive form of cänühä + present passive participle
past	infinitive form of cänühä + past passive participle

Examples (only the infinitival forms of the verb moɕädühä are shown):

Tense	Example
present	cänühä moɕäd́uhi
past	cänühä mäɕod́uhi

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative adverb wī. This adverb is placed after the conjugated verbal form, namely after either the main verb, an auxiliary, or a modal verb, but before other unconjugated verbal forms.

äs subä cerun → äs subä cerun wī
the dog is sleeping → The dog isn't sleeping

äs subä ṕäs cerunühä → äs subä ṕäs wī cerunühä
the dog can sleep → The dog cannot sleep

Double negatives are generally allowed, and often used.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{main|Cärähə}}
 This page gives an extensive description of '''Cärähə morphological''' features.
+==Nouns==
+Nouns in Cärähə language end predominantly in a vowel. A certain amount of nouns, however, ends in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, mostly -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.
+Nouns display neither gender nor class distinction. There are, however, two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''' and '''plural'''. Whether a noun is deemed as ''definite'' or ''indefinite'', a form of '''article''' is generally used and placed before it, with a few exceptions.
+There is no case system.
+===Articles===
+There are two articles, the '''indefinite article''', xah, and the '''definite article''', äs. The definite article agrees with the noun in number, while the indefinite article displays only the singular form.
+{|-
+|-
+| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 70px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 70px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
+|-
+| <center><small>''indefinite''</small></center>  || xah || -
+|-
+| <center><small>''definite''</small></center>  || äs || äsən
+|-
+|}
+Both articles are always placed before the noun.
+The definite article, both in its singular and plural forms, can merge with some prepositions to form the so-called ''articled prepositions''. Such forms will be analyzed in a following section.
+===Plural===
+Nouns are declined in number by adding the following ending to the base form of the noun:
+{|-
+|-
+| style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
+|-
+| - || -nə
+|}
+Some examples are shown below: bäb́ə, ''father'', and sohə, ''house''.
+{|-
+|-
+| colspan="2" | <center>bäb́ə</center> || colspan="2" | <center>sohə</center>
+|-
+| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
+|-
+| bäb́ə || bäb́ənə || sohə || sohənə
+|}
+Nouns ending in a consonantin their base form, mostly loanwords, usually add a euphonic vowel before the endings of the other cases. This vowel is generally -ə-, but other vowels are also possible, like -ü-.
+Some irregular nouns, conversely, change their last vowel in the root before adding the plural ending. The commonest change is ə → u. A lot of these nouns display both irregular and regular forms, especially in earlier texts. In modern texts the amount of irregular forms is extremely limited, with a strong tendency towards regularization by analogy.
+ <small>sing.</small> bäb́ənə → <small>plur.</small> bäb́unə.
+==Adjectives and pronouns==
+Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, usually showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.
+===Adjectives===
+Attributive adjectives are always placed '''after''' the nouns they specify, with a few exceptions, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' the verb.
+ äs wīrə çoba
+ <small>the young man</small>
+ äs wīrə cän çoba
+ <small>the man is young</small>
+All adjectives agree in number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal ending.
+====Declension of qualifying adjectives====
+Adjectival declension follow the same rules as the nominal declension, with the same exceptions.
+Example: xürü, ''big'', with sohə, ''house''
+{|-
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center>  || style="width: 150px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center>
+|-
+| sohə xürü || sohənə xürünə
+|}
+===Personal pronouns===
+Personal pronouns feature a distinction between three forms. The first form is used as the subject of the clauses, for every kind of verbs. The second form is used as the direct object of the clause, for transitive verbs, and with every preposition requiring the direct case. The third form is used as the indirect object of the clause, for ditransitive verbs.
+Moreover, the first two persons (1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup>) have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension. On the other hand, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup>person has only one root, displaying, however, a similar irregular declension.
+{|-
+|-
+| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 90px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 90px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 90px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 90px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 90px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 90px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center>
+|-
+| <center><small>''subject''</small></center>  || üd́ə || ird́ə || jäsrə || üd́unə || ird́unə || jäsrunə
+|-
+| <center><small>''direct object''</small></center>  || çə || nä || jäs || çunə || nänə || jäsnə
+|-
+| <center><small>''indirect object''</small></center> || çərä || närä || järä || çunərä || nänərä || jäsnərä
+|}
+When used alone, the forms for the direct and indirect object tend to be placed before the conjugated verb in the sentence. Their positioning after the verb is regarded as a marked position.
+Examples:
+ üd́ə jäs rurīsü wī
+ <small>I didn't see him</small>
+ üd́ə rurīsü wī jäs
+ <small>As for him, I didn't see him</small>
+Anyway, these pronouns are placed after the negative adverb.
+===Interrogative pronouns===
+Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (<small>''who?''</small>) and one for inanimate entities (<small>''what?''</small>).
+*''what'': sä
+*''who'': xa
+Both pronouns display only the singular number forms.
+ gö xa guŕähir süci?
+ <small>whom did you give water to?</small>
+There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):
+* säruɕ: where (<small>static location and motion toward</small>)
+* säruk: why (<small>cause</small>)
+* säcuho: when
+* sämün: how much
+* säŕap: how
+There are also the following interrogative adjectives:
+* sähə: which
+* sämüni: how much / many
+In earlier texts the interrogative adjective xahə can be found, which is placed exclusively before nouns referring to animate entities. Usage of this form is regarded as obsolete in the modern language.
+Such adjectives, like the demonstrative adjectives, tend to be placed before their nouns and they are never used with the article.
+Within an interrogative clause, pronouns usually are usually moved at the beginning of the sentence. Their syntactical position is regarded as extremely marked.
+ sämüninə çähinə xehīxir?
+ <small>how many sheep do you have?</small>
+In addition,  like other parts of the sentences, they can be introduced by prepositions:
+ gü xa sähiŕuhir?
+ <small>whom are you talking about?</small>
 ==Numerals==
 The numeral system relies on a decimal base.
+===Cardinal numerals===
 The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:
@@ Line 134: / Line 271: @@
   <small>the one thousand</small>
-There is, moreover, an additional pronoun-like irregular numeral, hähühü, meaning "both". It is meant as an indeclinable form, and it is never used with the any article. The verb agrees with this form in the plural number.
+There is, moreover, an additional pronoun-like irregular numeral, hähühü, meaning "both". It is meant as an indeclinable form, and it is never used with any article. The verb agrees with this form in the plural number.
   äs sohə cär hähühü
@@ Line 150: / Line 287: @@
 |}
+===Ordinal numerals===
 Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -ro to the cardinal numeral form, with some irregularities:
 {|-
@@ Line 199: / Line 337: @@
 If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
 *''25<sup>th</sup>'': hähüped́unə sehiro
+==Verbs==
+The verbal system of Cärähə language displays the following features:
+*'''tense''':
+**''simple tenses'': present, past
+**''compound tenses'': present continuous, past continuous, perfect, pluperfect, future, anterior future, future in the past
+*'''mood''':
+**''definite moods'': indicative, subjunctive, optative, potential
+**''indefinite moods'': infinitive, active participle, passive participle
+*'''diathesis''': active, passive
+Each verb has two roots, the ''present root'' ('''R<sub>pres</sub>''') and the ''past root'' ('''R<sub>past</sub>'''). The base form is the present root, while the past root is usually derived fromt he present one. . The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
+ CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C
+Example:
+ '''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = moɕäd- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = mäɕod-
+This process may give rise to irregular root forms.
+ '''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = ǵärug- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = guŕäg-
+In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.
+However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowels involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:
+ '''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = secerun- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = securen-
+ '''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = sühisuh- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = sihüsuh-
+ '''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = x́äsähirih- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = x́äsihärih-
+Some verbs, many of them neologisms or loanwords, derive their past root from the present one by adding the suffix -ig, without any vowel switching:
+ CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C'''ig'''
+:Example:
+ '''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = çurühuh- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = çurühuhig-
+The verb cänühä, ''to be'', display a totally irregular past root:
+ '''R<sub>pres</sub>''' = cän- → '''R<sub>past</sub>''' = häcän-
+Likewise, other monosyllabic verbs are treated as irregular verbs.
+The citation form of verbs is the present infinitive, marked by the ending -ühä. From such form the present verbal root can be inferred and can be changed in every other verbal form.
+All verbs are divided in two classes, depending on the outcome of the third singular person. In the ''first class'' ('''class I'''), the ending -äh is used, with some possible irregularities, while in the ''second class'' ('''class II'''), a ''null ending'' is used, with a more regular outcome. Verbs with a past root built with the suffix -ig- belong always to the class II, creating thus a subgroup, known as '''class IIg'''.
+In simple tenses the following personal endings are added to the verbal root. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 70px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 70px;"| <center>''class II''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ü</center> || <center>-ü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ir</center> || <center>-ir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-́äh</center> || <center>-</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-unü</center> || <center>-unü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-unir</center> || <center>-unir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-uńäh</center> || <center>-un</center>
+|}
+The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
+*''indicative'': Ø
+*''subjunctive'': -ün-
+*''optative'': -us-
+*''potential'': -äɕ-
+The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings. As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots.
+The non-finite endings are:
+*''infinitive'': -ühä
+*''active participle'': -īdə
+*''passive participle'': -́uhi
+The passive particle ending may cause irregularities to arise in the roots.
+===Conjugation of regular verbs===
+Sample verbs: as a '''class I''' verb, moɕädühä, ''to pick up, to collect'', as a '''class II''' verb, xixehühä, ''to fall'', as a '''class IIg''' verb, pürücühä, ''to hit''
+====Active diathesis====
+=====Indicative mood=====
+======Present tense======
+The '''present''' is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the present root:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕädü</center> || <center>xixehü</center> || <center>pürücü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕädir</center> || <center>xixehir</center> || <center>pürücir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕäd́äh</center> || <center>xixeg</center> || <center>pürüc</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕädunü</center> || <center>xixehunü</center> || <center>pürücunü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕädunir</center> || <center>xixehunir</center> || <center>pürücunir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕäduńäh</center> || <center>xixehun</center> || <center>pürücun</center>
+|}
+In the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, which features the ending -́äh or ''null ending'', irregularities may often occur.
+The ending -́äh always causes ''palatalization'' of the preceding consonant, if this consonant has a palatalized counterpart.
+ rīrusühä → rīruśäh
+ <small>to see → he/she/it sees</small>
+If the involved consonant does not have any palatalized counterparts, the ending is added to the root without any further palatalizing effect.
+The null ending causes less often irregularities, like altering the last root consonant:
+ ṕőrühä → ṕőw
+ <small>to fly→ he/she/it flies</small>
+======Past tense======
+The '''past''' is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the past root:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodü</center> || <center>xexihü</center> || <center>pürücigü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodir</center> || <center>xexihir</center> || <center>pürücigir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕod́äh</center> || <center>xexig</center> || <center>pürücig</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodunü</center> || <center>xexihunü</center> || <center>pürücigunü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodunir</center> || <center>xexihunir</center> || <center>pürücigunir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕoduńäh</center> || <center>xexihun</center> || <center>pürücigun</center>
+|}
+In the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, which features the ending -́äh or ''null ending'', irregularities may often occur.
+The ending -́äh always causes ''palatalization'' of the preceding consonant, if this consonant has a palatalized counterpart.
+ rīrusühä → rurīśäh
+ <small>to see → he/she/it saw</small>
+If the involved consonant does not have any palatalized counterparts, the ending is added to the root without any further palatalizing effect.
+The null ending causes less often irregularities, like altering the last root consonant:
+ ṕőrühä → ṕöw
+ <small>to fly→ he/she/it flew</small>
+In the class IIg irregularities never occur in the past tense.
+======Present continuous tense======
+The '''present countinuous''' is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänü moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cänü xixehīdə</center> || <center>cänü pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänir moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cänir xixehīdə</center> || <center>cänir pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cän moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cän xixehīdə</center> || <center>cän pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänunü moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänunü xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänunü pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänunir moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänunir xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänunir pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänun moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänun xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänun pürücīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Past continuous tense======
+The '''past countinuous''' is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänü moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcänü xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcänü pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänir moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcänir xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcänir pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcän moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcän xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcän pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänunü moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänunü xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänunü pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänunir moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänunir xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänunir pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänun moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänun xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänun pürücīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Perfect tense======
+The '''perfect''' is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänü mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cänü xexihīdə</center> || <center>cänü pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänir mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cänir xexihīdə</center> || <center>cänir pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cän mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cän xexihīdə</center> || <center>cän pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänunü mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänunü xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänunü pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänunir mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänunir xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänunir pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänun mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänun xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänun pürücigīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Pluperfect tense======
+The '''pluperfect''' is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänü mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcänü xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcänü pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänir mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcänir xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcänir pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcän mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcän xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcän pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänunü mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänunü xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänunü pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänunir mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänunir xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänunir pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänun mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänun xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänun pürücigīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Future tense======
+The '''future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänü moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänü xixehühä</center> || <center>cänü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänir moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänir xixehühä</center> || <center>cänir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cän moɕädühä</center> || <center>cän xixehühä</center> || <center>cän pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänunü moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänunü xixehühä</center> || <center>cänunü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänunir moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänunir xixehühä</center> || <center>cänunir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänun moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänun xixehühä</center> || <center>cänun pürücühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Anterior future tense======
+The '''anterior future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänü mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänü xexihühä</center> || <center>cänü pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänir mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänir xexihühä</center> || <center>cänir pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cän mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cän xexihühä</center> || <center>cän pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänunü mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänunü xexihühä</center> || <center>cänunü pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänunir mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänunir xexihühä</center> || <center>cänunir pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänun mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänun xexihühä</center> || <center>cänun pürücigühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Future in the past tense======
+The '''future in the past''' is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänü moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänü xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänir moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänir xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcän moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcän xixehühä</center> || <center>häcän pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänunü moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänunü xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänunü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänunir moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänunir xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänunir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänun moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänun xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänun pürücühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+=====Subjunctive mood=====
+The '''subjunctive''' mood is mostly used in dependent clauses. Its usage in main clauses is quite limited, except for its role as an imperative an exhortative form.
+The subjunctive widely features the infix -ün-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings.
+======Present tense======
+The '''present''' is a simple tense. The infix -ün- and the personal endings are added to the present root:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕädünü</center> || <center>xixehünü</center> || <center>pürücünü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕädünir</center> || <center>xixehünir</center> || <center>pürücünir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕädüńäh</center> || <center>xixehün</center> || <center>pürücün</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕädünunü</center> || <center>xixehünunü</center> || <center>pürücünunü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕädünunir</center> || <center>xixehünunir</center> || <center>pürücünunir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕädünuńäh</center> || <center>xixehünun</center> || <center>pürücünun</center>
+|}
+In the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, in the classes II and IIg irregularities never occur, while in the class I, the ending palatalizes the subjunctive infix into -üń-.
+======Past tense======
+The '''past''' is a simple tense. The infix -ün- and the personal endings are added to the past root:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodünü</center> || <center>xexihünü</center> || <center>pürücigünü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodünir</center> || <center>xexihünir</center> || <center>pürücigünir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodüńäh</center> || <center>xexihün</center> || <center>pürücigün</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodünunü</center> || <center>xexihünunü</center> || <center>pürücigünunü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodünunir</center> || <center>xexihünunir</center> || <center>pürücigünunir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodünuńäh</center> || <center>xexihünun</center> || <center>pürücigünun</center>
+|}
+In the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, in the classes II and IIg irregularities never occur, while in the class I, the ending palatalizes the subjunctive infix into -üń-.
+======Present continuous tense======
+The '''present countinuous''' is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänünü moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cänünü xixehīdə</center> || <center>cänünü pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänünir moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cänünir xixehīdə</center> || <center>cänünir pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänün moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cänün xixehīdə</center> || <center>cänün pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünunü moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänünunü xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänünunü pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünunir moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänünunir xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänünunir pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünun moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänünun xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänünun pürücīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Past continuous tense======
+The '''past countinuous''' is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänünü moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcänünü xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcänünü pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänünir moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcänünir xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcänünir pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänün moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcänün xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcänün pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünunü moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünunü xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünunü pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünunir moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünunir xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünunir pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünun moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünun xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünun pürücīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Perfect tense======
+The '''perfect''' is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänünü mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cänünü xexihīdə</center> || <center>cänünü pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänünir mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cänünir xexihīdə</center> || <center>cänünir pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänün mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cänün xexihīdə</center> || <center>cänün pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünunü mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänünunü xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänünunü pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünunir mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänünunir xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänünunir pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünun mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänünun xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänünun pürücigīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Pluperfect tense======
+The '''pluperfect''' is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänünü mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcänünü xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcänünü pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänünir mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcänünir xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcänünir pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänün mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcänün xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcänün pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünunü mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünunü xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünunü pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünunir mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünunir xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünunir pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünun mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünun xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänünun pürücigīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Future tense======
+The '''future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänünü moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänünü xixehühä</center> || <center>cänünü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänünir moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänünir xixehühä</center> || <center>cänünir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänün moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänün xixehühä</center> || <center>cänün pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünunü moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänünunü xixehühä</center> || <center>cänünunü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünunir moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänünunir xixehühä</center> || <center>cänünunir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünun moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänünun xixehühä</center> || <center>cänünun pürücühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Anterior future tense======
+The '''anterior future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänünü mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänünü xexihühä</center> || <center>cänünü pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänünir mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänünir xexihühä</center> || <center>cänünir pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänün mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänün xexihühä</center> || <center>cänün pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünunü mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänünunü xexihühä</center> || <center>cänünunü pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünunir mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänünunir xexihühä</center> || <center>cänünunir pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänünun mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänünun xexihühä</center> || <center>cänünun pürücigühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Future in the past tense======
+The '''future in the past''' is a compound tense. It is built with the subjunctive past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänünü moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänünü xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänünü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänünir moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänünir xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänünir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänün moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänün xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänün pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünunü moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänünunü xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänünunü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünunir moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänünunir xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänünunir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänünun moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänünun xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänünun pürücühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+=====Optative mood=====
+The '''optative''' mood is used to convey wish and desire. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses.
+The optative widely features the infix -us-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings.
+======Present tense======
+The '''present''' is a simple tense. The infix -us- and the personal endings are added to the present root:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕädusü</center> || <center>xixehusü</center> || <center>pürücusü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕädusir</center> || <center>xixehusir</center> || <center>pürücusir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕäduśäh</center> || <center>xixehus</center> || <center>pürücus</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕädusunü</center> || <center>xixehusunü</center> || <center>pürücusunü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕädusunir</center> || <center>xixehusunir</center> || <center>pürücusunir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕädusuńäh</center> || <center>xixehusun</center> || <center>pürücusun</center>
+|}
+In the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, in the classes II and IIg irregularities never occur, while in the class I, the ending palatalizes the optative infix into -uś-.
+======Past tense======
+The '''past''' is a simple tense. The infix -us- and the personal endings are added to the past root:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodusü</center> || <center>xexihusü</center> || <center>pürücigusü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodusir</center> || <center>xexihusir</center> || <center>pürücigusir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕoduśäh</center> || <center>xexihus</center> || <center>pürücigus</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodusunü</center> || <center>xexihusunü</center> || <center>pürücigusunü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodusunir</center> || <center>xexihusunir</center> || <center>pürücigusunir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕodusuńäh</center> || <center>xexihusun</center> || <center>pürücigusun</center>
+|}
+In the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person, in the classes II and IIg irregularities never occur, while in the class I, the ending palatalizes the optative infix into -uś-.
+======Present continuous tense======
+The '''present countinuous''' is a compound tense. It is built with the optative present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänusü moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cänusü xixehīdə</center> || <center>cänusü pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänusir moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cänusir xixehīdə</center> || <center>cänusir pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänus moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cänus xixehīdə</center> || <center>cänus pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusunü moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänusunü xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänusunü pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusunir moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänusunir xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänusunir pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusun moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cänusun xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cänusun pürücīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Past continuous tense======
+The '''past countinuous''' is a compound tense. It is built with the optative past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänusü moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcänusü xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcänusü pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänusir moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcänusir xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcänusir pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänus moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcänus xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcänus pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusunü moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusunü xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusunü pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusunir moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusunir xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusunir pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusun moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusun xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusun pürücīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Perfect tense======
+The '''perfect''' is a compound tense. It is built with the optative present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänusü mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cänusü xexihīdə</center> || <center>cänusü pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänusir mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cänusir xexihīdə</center> || <center>cänusir pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänus mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cänus xexihīdə</center> || <center>cänus pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusunü mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänusunü xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänusunü pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusunir mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänusunir xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänusunir pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusun mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cänusun xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cänusun pürücigīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Pluperfect tense======
+The '''pluperfect''' is a compound tense. It is built with the optative past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänusü mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcänusü xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcänusü pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänusir mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcänusir xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcänusir pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänus mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcänus xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcänus pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusunü mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusunü xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusunü pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusunir mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusunir xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusunir pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusun mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusun xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcänusun pürücigīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Future tense======
+The '''future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the optative present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänusü moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänusü xixehühä</center> || <center>cänusü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänusir moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänusir xixehühä</center> || <center>cänusir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänus moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänus xixehühä</center> || <center>cänus pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusunü moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänusunü xixehühä</center> || <center>cänusunü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusunir moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänusunir xixehühä</center> || <center>cänusunir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusun moɕädühä</center> || <center>cänusun xixehühä</center> || <center>cänusun pürücühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Anterior future tense======
+The '''anterior future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the optative present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänusü mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänusü xexihühä</center> || <center>cänusü pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänusir mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänusir xexihühä</center> || <center>cänusir pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cänus mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänus xexihühä</center> || <center>cänus pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusunü mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänusunü xexihühä</center> || <center>cänusunü pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusunir mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänusunir xexihühä</center> || <center>cänusunir pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cänusun mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cänusun xexihühä</center> || <center>cänusun pürücigühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Future in the past tense======
+The '''future in the past''' is a compound tense. It is built with the optative past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänusü moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänusü xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänusü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänusir moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänusir xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänusir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcänus moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänus xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänus pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusunü moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänusunü xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänusunü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusunir moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänusunir xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänusunir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcänusun moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcänusun xixehühä</center> || <center>häcänusun pürücühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+=====Potential mood=====
+The '''potential''' mood is used to convey potentiality and probability. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses.
+The potential widely features the infix -äɕ-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings. This infix can cause irregularities, because it palatalizes every consonant, which has a palatalized counteparts. This makes the potential the richest mood in irregularities.
+======Present tense======
+The '''present''' is a simple tense. The infix -äɕ-, which often palatalizes the last consonant of the root, and the personal endings are added to the present root:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕäd́äɕü</center> || <center>xixeh́äɕü</center> || <center>pürüćäɕü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕäd́äɕir</center> || <center>xixeh́äɕir</center> || <center>pürüćäɕir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>moɕäd́äɕäh</center> || <center>xixeh́äɕ</center> || <center>pürüćäɕ</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕäd́äɕunü</center> || <center>xixeh́äɕunü</center> || <center>pürüćäɕunü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕäd́äɕunir</center> || <center>xixeh́äɕunir</center> || <center>pürüćäɕunir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>moɕäd́äɕuńäh</center> || <center>xixeh́äɕun</center> || <center>pürüćäɕun</center>
+|}
+Since the consonant of the potential infix -äɕ- has no palatalized counterpart, in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person the personal endings of the classes can cause no further irregularities.
+======Past tense======
+The '''past''' is a simple tense. The infix -äɕ-, which often palatalizes the last consonant of the root, and the personal endings are added to the past root:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕod́äɕü</center> || <center>xexih́äɕü</center> || <center>pürüciǵäɕü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕod́äɕir</center> || <center>xexih́äɕir</center> || <center>pürüciǵäɕir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>mäɕod́äɕäh</center> || <center>xexih́äɕ</center> || <center>pürüciǵäɕ</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕod́äɕunü</center> || <center>xexih́äɕunü</center> || <center>pürüciǵäɕunü</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕod́äɕunir</center> || <center>xexih́äɕunir</center> || <center>pürüciǵäɕunir</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>mäɕod́äɕuńäh</center> || <center>xexih́äɕun</center> || <center>pürüciǵäɕun</center>
+|}
+Since the consonant of the potential infix -äɕ- has no palatalized counterpart, in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> singular person the personal endings of the classes can cause no further irregularities.
+======Present continuous tense======
+The '''present countinuous''' is a compound tense. It is built with the potential present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕü moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕü xixehīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕü pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕir moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕir xixehīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕir pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕ moɕädīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕ xixehīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕ pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕunü  moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕunü  xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕunü  pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕunir moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕunir xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕunir pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕun moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕun xixehīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕun pürücīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Past continuous tense======
+The '''past countinuous''' is a compound tense. It is built with the potential past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕü moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕü xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕü pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕir moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕir xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕir pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕ moɕädīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕ xixehīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕ pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕunü moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunü xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunü pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕunir moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunir xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunir pürücīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕun moɕädīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕun xixehīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕun pürücīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Perfect tense======
+The '''perfect''' is a compound tense. It is built with the potential present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕü mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕü xexihīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕü pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕir mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕir xexihīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕir pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕ mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕ xexihīdə</center> || <center>cäńäɕ pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕunü mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕunü xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕunü pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕunir mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕunir xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕunir pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕun mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕun xexihīdənə</center> || <center>cäńäɕun pürücigīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Pluperfect tense======
+The '''pluperfect''' is a compound tense. It is built with the potential past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past participle of the conjugated verb, agreeing in number with the clause subject:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕü mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕü xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕü pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕir mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕir xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕir pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕ mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕ xexihīdə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕ pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕunü mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunü xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunü pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕunir mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunir xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunir pürücigīdənə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕun mäɕodīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕun xexihīdənə</center> || <center>häcäńäɕun pürücigīdənə</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Future tense======
+The '''future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the potential present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕü moɕädühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕü xixehühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕir moɕädühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕir xixehühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕ moɕädühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕ xixehühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕ pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕunü moɕädühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕunü xixehühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕunü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕunir moɕädühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕunir xixehühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕunir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕun moɕädühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕun xixehühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕun pürücühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Anterior future tense======
+The '''anterior future''' is a compound tense. It is built with the potential present forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active past infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕü mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕü xexihühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕü pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕir mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕir xexihühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕir pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕ mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕ xexihühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕ pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕunü mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕunü xexihühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕunü pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕunir mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕunir xexihühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕunir pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>cäńäɕun mäɕodühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕun xexihühä</center> || <center>cäńäɕun pürücigühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+======Future in the past tense======
+The '''future in the past''' is a compound tense. It is built with the potential past forms of the verb cänühä, ''to be'', with the active present infinitive of the conjugated verb:
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class I''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class II''</center> || style="width: 200px;"| <center>''class IIg''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕü moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕü xixehühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕir moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕir xixehühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕ moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕ xixehühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕ pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕunü moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunü xixehühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunü pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕunir moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunir xixehühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕunir pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>häcäńäɕun moɕädühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕun xixehühä</center> || <center>häcäńäɕun pürücühä</center>
+|}
+This tense is regarded as essentially regular.
+The 3<sup><small>rd</sup></small> person of the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''essere'', displays only the short form, regardless of the class of the conjugated verb.
+=====Non-finite forms=====
+The non-finite verbal forms are:
+======Infinitive======
+It is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and it is not conjugated in person or number. It has, however, a present and a past form, respectively built on the ''present root'' and on the ''past root''. It is marked by the ending -ühä.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class I</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class II</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class IIg</small>''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>present</small>'' || <center>moɕädühä</center>  || <center>xixehühä</center>  || <center>pürücühä</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>past</small>'' || <center>mäɕodühä</center> || <center>xexihühä</center> || <center>pürücigühä</center>
+|-
+|}
+The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb and it can be declined also in the plural number in this function. In this function it is also usually adjoined by the articles.
+ äs xemunühä
+ <small>the food</small>
+======Participle======
+There are two participial forms, the ''active participle'' and the ''passive participle''. Both infinitives have a present and a past form, respectively built on the ''present root'' and on the ''preterite root''. As they are adjectival forms, they are both declined as such.
+The '''active participle''' is formed through the ending -īdə, added to both roots.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class I</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class II</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class IIg</small>''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>present</small>'' || <center>moɕädīdə</center>  || <center>xixehīdə</center>  || <center>pürücīdə</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>past</small>'' || <center>mäɕodīdə</center> || <center>xexihīdə</center> || <center>pürücigīdə</center>
+|-
+|}
+The '''passive participle''' is formed through the ending -́uhi, added to both roots.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 70px;"| || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class I</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class II</small>''</center> || style="width: 150px;"| <center>''<small>class IIg</small>''</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>present</small>'' || <center>moɕäd́uhi</center>  || <center>xixeh́uhi</center>  || <center>pürüćuhi</center>
+|-
+| ''<small>past</small>'' || <center>mäɕod́uhi</center> || <center>xexih́uhi</center> || <center>pürüciǵuhi</center>
+|-
+|}
+Irregularities tend to occur often in the forms of the passive particles, since the ending -́uhi systematically palatalizes all preceding consonants, which have a palatalized counterpart. This makes the potential one of the richest moods in irregularities.
+The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. It is sometimes used to build relative clauses. As an adjectival form it is declined in number, even in its verbal function.
+The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. It is widely used both in the verbal conjugation to build the passive forms and as an adjective. As an adjectival form it is declined in number, even in its verbal function.
+Besides its verbal or adjectival role, in some cases the participle may be used as noun, if preceded by the article.
+ äs mäɕod́uhi
+ <small>the harvest</small>
+====Passive diathesis====
+The ''passive diathesis'' displays only compound forms, in every mood and tense. These forms are always built through the auxiliary verb cänühä, ''to be'' with the various forms of the passive participle.
+The usage of the different moods and tenses is exactly the same as the active diathesis. However, the passive diathesis completely lacks any continuous tense. The passive particles always agree with the clause subject in number.
+=====Indicative mood=====
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || indicative present forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || indicative past forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''perfect'''''  || indicative present forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''plusperfect'''''  || indicative past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''future'''''  || indicative future forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''anterior future'''''  || indicative future forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''future in the past'''''  || indicative future in the past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+|-
+|}
+Examples (<small>for each tense only the 1<sup>st</sup> person singular form of the verb moɕädühä is shown</small>):
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || cänü moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || häcänü moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''perfect'''''  || cänü mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''plusperfect'''''  || häcänü mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''future'''''  || cänü cänühä moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''anterior future'''''  || cänü cänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''future in the past'''''  || häcänü häcänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+|}
+=====Subjunctive mood=====
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || subjunctive present forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || subjunctive past forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''perfect'''''  || subjunctive present forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''plusperfect'''''  || subjunctive past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''future'''''  || subjunctive future forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''anterior future'''''  || subjunctive future forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''future in the past'''''  || subjunctive future in the past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+|-
+|}
+Examples (<small>for each tense only the 1<sup>st</sup> person singular form of the verb moɕädühä is shown</small>):
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || cänünü moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || häcänünü moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''perfect'''''  || cänünü mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''plusperfect'''''  || häcänünü mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''future'''''  || cänünü cänühä moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''anterior future'''''  || cänünü cänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''future in the past'''''  || häcänünü häcänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+|}
+=====Optative mood=====
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || optative present forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || optative past forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''perfect'''''  || optative present forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''plusperfect'''''  || optative past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''future'''''  || optative future forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''anterior future'''''  || optative future forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''future in the past'''''  || optative future in the past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+|-
+|}
+Examples (<small>for each tense only the 1<sup>st</sup> person singular form of the verb moɕädühä is shown</small>):
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || cänusü moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || häcänusü moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''perfect'''''  || cänusü mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''plusperfect'''''  || häcänusü mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''future'''''  || cänusü cänühä moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''anterior future'''''  || cänusü cänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''future in the past'''''  || häcänusü häcänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+|}
+=====Potential mood=====
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || potential present forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || potential past forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''perfect'''''  || potential present forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''plusperfect'''''  || potential past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''future'''''  || potential future forms of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''anterior future'''''  || potential future forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+| '''''future in the past'''''  || potential future in the past forms of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+|-
+|}
+Examples (<small>for each tense only the 1<sup>st</sup> person singular form of the verb moɕädühä is shown</small>):
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || cäńäɕü moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || häcäńäɕü moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''perfect'''''  || cäńäɕü mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''plusperfect'''''  || häcäńäɕü mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''future'''''  || cäńäɕü cänühä moɕäd́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''anterior future'''''  || cäńäɕü cänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+| '''''future in the past'''''  || häcäńäɕü häcänühä mäɕod́uhi, ...
+|-
+|}
+=====Infinitive mood=====
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Construction''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || infinitive form of cänühä + present passive participle
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || infinitive form of cänühä + past passive participle
+|-
+|}
+Examples (<small>only the infinitival forms of the verb moɕädühä are shown</small>):
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+| style="width: 150px;"| <center><small>''Tense''</small></center> || <center><small>''Example''</small></center>
+|-
+| '''''present'''''  || cänühä moɕäd́uhi
+|-
+| '''''past'''''  || cänühä mäɕod́uhi
+|-
+|}
+===Negation===
+The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative adverb wī. This adverb is placed ''after'' the conjugated verbal form, namely ''after'' either the main verb, an auxiliary, or a modal verb, but before other unconjugated verbal forms.
+ äs subä cerun → äs subä cerun '''wī'''
+ <small>the dog is sleeping → The dog isn't sleeping</small>
+ äs subä ṕäs cerunühä → äs subä ṕäs '''wī''' cerunühä
+ <small>the dog can sleep → The dog cannot sleep</small>
+''Double negatives'' are generally '''''allowed''', and often used.

Cärähə morphology: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 07:24, 16 September 2025

Nouns

Articles

Plural

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Personal pronouns

Interrogative pronouns

Numerals

Cardinal numerals

Ordinal numerals

Verbs

Conjugation of regular verbs

Active diathesis

Indicative mood

Present tense

Past tense

Present continuous tense

Past continuous tense

Perfect tense

Pluperfect tense

Future tense

Anterior future tense

Future in the past tense

Subjunctive mood

Present tense

Past tense

Present continuous tense

Past continuous tense

Perfect tense

Pluperfect tense

Future tense

Anterior future tense

Future in the past tense

Optative mood

Present tense

Past tense

Present continuous tense

Past continuous tense

Perfect tense

Pluperfect tense

Future tense

Anterior future tense

Future in the past tense

Potential mood

Present tense

Past tense

Present continuous tense

Past continuous tense

Perfect tense

Pluperfect tense

Future tense

Anterior future tense

Future in the past tense

Non-finite forms

Infinitive

Participle

Passive diathesis

Indicative mood

Subjunctive mood

Optative mood

Potential mood

Infinitive mood

Negation

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