User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII

Main article: Höśikə

This page gives an extensive description of Höśikə morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in Höśikə language can end either in a vowel or in a consonant, although there is a marked tendency for the vocalic ending. Nouns ending in a consonant usually add a euphonic vowel before the normal declension endings.

Nouns display neither gender nor class distinction. Nouns are divided and categorized in six declension groups, each distinguished by the plural formation and the last phoneme of the word.

There are, moreover, two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural, and a limited case system. Nouns also display two forms, the indefinite form and the definite form, the latter being built by adding the postposed definite article.

Cases

Höśikə nouns do decline, according to a nominative-accusative system with 2 cases:

Case	Meaning
Direct	This case marks both the subject and the direct object of a verb. It can be also used with some prepositions. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Oblique	It has no specifical meaning and it is generally used only with prepositions. It can be occasionally used without prepositions, with some verbs, and it may mark the indirect object in some kinds of pronouns.

Articles

There is only one article, the definite article, which is placed after the first element in the noun cluster as a suffixal form. It agrees with the noun cluster only in number.

singular	plural
-žə / -ɛž	-žõ

In the singular direct case two forms of the article are listed. The choice between the two forms depends on the last phoneme of the definite word:

• žə is placed after a word ending with a vowel.
• ɛž is placed after a word ending with a consonant.

A noun or another element with the definite article attached is regarded as being in its definite form. A noun or another element without the article is regarded as being in its indefinite form.

When a noun cluster has more than one element, the article is attached only to the first element. Other elements remain in their indefinite form.

kɛvə - kɛvəžə
a wolf - the wolf

ruqažə qokjə rimusjyti
the good old shepherd

Noun declension

Nouns are divided in six groups for nominal declension. These groups are commonly called declensions. Such declensions are distinguished by the last phoneme of the singular direct case form, by the formation of plural forms and by the added phonemes within the declension process.

As a whole, plural formation is marked by nasalisation of the last vocalic phoneme. Some declension are further divided in subgroups.

Nouns are declined, moreover, in case by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

direct	-
oblique	-šy

First declension

First declension nouns end in a simple vowel in their base form.

This vowel is nasalized in the plural forms, but it remains unaffected in its quality in both case and plural formation. All patterns involve, thus, a single vowel:

base	singular oblique	plural
-a	-a	-ã
-ä	-ä	-ä̃
-ɛ	-ɛ	-ɛ̃
-o	-o	-õ
-ö	-ö	-ö̃
-u	-u	-ũ
-ü	-ü	-ü̃

Example: sopa, dog.

	singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	sopa	sopažə	sopã	sopãžõ
oblique	sopašy	sopašyžə	sopãšy	sopãšyžõ

Second declension

Second declension nouns end in a simple vowel in their base form.

This vowel is nasalized in the plural forms, and it undergoes some kind of alteration in quality in either case or plural formation.

Subgroup A

The final vowel remains unaffected in quality in the singular, but it undergoes a change in quality in the plural, together with nasalisation. All patterns involve, thus, two vowels:

base	singular oblique	plural
-i	-i	-ỹ

Example: čeri, bridge.

	singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	čeri	čerižə	čerỹ	čerỹžõ
oblique	čerišy	čerišyžə	čerỹšy	čerỹšyžõ

Subgroup B

The final vowel rundergoes a change in quality both in the singular and in the plural, together with nasalisation. All patterns involve, thus, two vowels:

base	singular oblique	plural
-ə	-o	-õ
-y	-u	-ũ

Example: ɛcə, year.

	singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	ɛcə	ɛcəžə	ɛcõ	ɛcõžõ
oblique	ɛcošy	ɛcošyžə	ɛcõšy	ɛcõšyžõ

Subgroup C

The final vowel (usually preceded by the semivowel -j-) undergoes a first change in quality in the singular, then it undergoes a further change and in the plural, together with nasalisation. All patterns involve, thus, three vowels:

base	singular oblique	plural
-ə	-e	-ỹ

Example: ħukjə, bear.

	singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	ħukjə	ħukjəžə	ħukjỹ	ħukjỹžõ
oblique	ħukješy	ħukješyžə	ħukjỹšy	ħukjỹšyžõ

Third declension

Third declension nouns end in a consonant in their base form.

A vowel is added withing declension. This vowel is nasalized in the plural forms, and it may undergo some kind of alteration in quality in either case or plural formation.

Subgroup A

The vowel -ɛ- is added. This vowel is nasalized in the plural forms, but it remains unaffected in its quality in both case and plural formation. All patterns involve, thus, a single vowel:

base	singular oblique	plural
-	-ɛ	-ɛ̃

Example: uħetnỹm, stylus.

	singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	uħetnỹm	uħetnỹmɛž	uħetnỹmɛ̃	uħetnỹmɛ̃žõ
oblique	uħetnỹmɛšy	uħetnỹmɛšyžə	uħetnỹmɛ̃šy	uħetnỹmɛ̃šyžõ

Subgroup B

The vowel -e- is added. This vowel undergoes a change in quality and it is nasalized in the plural forms. All patterns involve, thus, two vowels:

base	singular oblique	plural
-	-e	-ỹ

Example: büts, leg.

	singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	büts	bütsɛž	bütsỹ	bütsỹžõ
oblique	bütsešy	bütsešyžə	bütsỹšy	bütsỹšyžõ

Fourth declension

Fourth declension nouns end in a nasal vowel in their base form.

This vowel remains unaffected in quality and nasalisation in both case and plural formation. All patterns involve, thus, a single vowel:

base	singular oblique	plural
-ã	-ã	-ã
-ä̃	-ä̃	-ä̃
-ɛ̃	-ɛ̃	-ɛ̃
-ə̃	-ə̃	-ə̃
-õ	-õ	-õ
-ö̃	-ö̃	-ö̃
-ũ	-ũ	-ũ
-ü̃	-ü̃	-ü̃
-ỹ	-ỹ	-ỹ

Example: śuqɛ̃, woman.

	singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	śuqɛ̃	śuqɛ̃žə	śuqɛ̃	śuqɛ̃žõ
oblique	śuqɛ̃šy	śuqɛ̃šyžə	śuqɛ̃šy	śuqɛ̃šyžõ

As it can be easily noticed, nouns belonging to this declension do not actually distinguish the singular the plural number in their indefinite form. In such cases, distinction in number is made by other elements in the sentence, like adjectives or verbs.

śuqɛ̃ cöraq - śuqɛ̃ cöraqõ
a woman is running - some women are running

Fifth declension

Fifth declension nouns end in a nasal vowel in their base form.

This vowel remains unaffected in nasalisation in the plural, but it undergoes a change in quality in case formation in the singular. All patterns involve, thus, two vowels:

base	singular oblique	plural
-ẽ	-ẽ	-ỹ
-ĩ	-ĩ	-ỹ

Example: rjeħẽ, river.

	singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	rjeħẽ	rjeħẽžə	rjeħỹ	rjeħỹžõ
oblique	rjeħẽšy	rjeħẽšyžə	rjeħỹšy	rjeħỹšyžõ

Sixth declension

Sixth declension nouns do not display a regular declension pattern. This conjugation encompasses every noun which does not fit in the previous regular declensions.

Since it does not display a default pattern, the few sixth declension nouns are regarded as inherently irregular. The indefinite singular oblique form and the indefinite direct plural form are clearly mentioned in the dictionary.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, usually showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them of after the verb.

höpäžə jyrə
the young man

jyrəžə qɛň höpä 
the man is young

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings and folliwing the same declension groups of the nominal declension. Within the noun cluster they can take the definite form, if they are the first element in a definite noun cluster.

rjeqəžə sovə h́äc höpäšyžə jyrošy mjeqis qü̃ pikə ɛci
the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Adjectival declension follow the same rules as the nominal declension, with the same exceptions.

Example: šɔrəj, big, with hɔgo, house

	singular	plural
direct	šɔrəj hɔgo	šɔrəjno hɔgono
oblique	šɔrəjre hɔgore	šɔrəjnure hɔgonure

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns feature a distinction between two forms for the direct case. The first form (named direct₁) is used as the subject of the clauses, for every kind of verbs. The second form (named direct₂) is used as the direct object of the clause, for transitive verbs, and with every preposition requiring the direct case.

Moreover, the first two persons (1^st and 2^nd) have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension. On the other hand, the 3^rdperson has only one root, displaying, however, a similar irregular declension.

	1st sing.	2nd sing.	3rd sing.	1st plur.	2nd plur.	3rd plur.
direct1	ɔddo	əjddo	ježlo	ɔdduno	əjdduno	ježluno
direct2	ho	ne	ješ	huno	neno	ježno
oblique	hore	nere	ježre	hunure	nenure	ježnure

When used alone, the forms for the direct and indirect object tend to be placed before the conjugated verb in the sentence. Their positioning after the verb is regarded as a marked position.

Examples:

ɔddo ješ ejjužejdo əjs
I didn't see him

ɔddo ejjužejdo əjs ješ
As for him, I didn't see him

Anyway, these pronouns are placed after the negative adverbs.