Old Albic/Version 1

This document describes a very early, long obsolete version of the Old Albic language that was posted to the CONLANG mailing ist on June 21, 2004.

Introduction

Old Albic (OA) is the oldest Albic language attested in writing. The language was spoken in southern Britain prior to the Celtic invasions. This sketch describes the classical language as it was spoken and written in the heyday of the Albic civilization in the 6th century BC. The native term for the standard language is Tañ Tach (Is Elbis), "proper language (of the Elves)".

Phonology

Consonants

Old Albic has 18 consonant phonemes, which are summed up in the following chart:

                     Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
__________________________________________________________________

Stops, voiceless      p      t                       c
Stops, voiced         b      d                       g
Fricatives            ph     th     s                ch    h
Nasals                m      n                       ñ
Lateral                             l
Flap                                r
Semivowels            v                      j
__________________________________________________________________

Most are as in IPA, except: c = /k/, ph = /f/, th = /T/, ch = /x/, ñ = /N/, v = /w/.

The stops (p, t, c, b, d, g) have fortis and lenis allophones. The lenis allophones occur between vowels, semivowels and liquids, the fortis allophones in all other environments.

The phonemes ph, th and ch, while phonetically fricatives, phonologically behave like stops, and probably were aspirated stops in an earlier stage of the language.

Clusters of stop (including ph, th, ch) and /s/ undergo metathesis, e.g. ps -> sp. Between vowels, /s/ becomes /r/ (rhotacism).

Vowels

There are 7 vowel qualities in Old Albic:

        a e i o ø u y
_____________________

[open]  + + - + + - -
[front] - + + - + - +
[round] - - - + + + +
_____________________

All seven vowels have roughly their IPA values. These vowels can be short or long. Long vowels are transcribed with an accent mark: á, é, í, ó, ú, ǿ, ý. Long vowels are tense, short vowels are lax.

Umlaut

The vowels /a/, /i/ and /u/ (both short and long) cause changes in preceding short vowels. These changes are called umlaut. Corresponding to the three umlaut-causing vowels, there are three kinds of umlaut: a-umlaut lowers high vowels, i-umlaut fronts back vowels, and u-umlaut rounds unrounded vowels. The changes are summarized in the following table:

Radical a-umlaut i-umlaut u-umlaut
__________________________________

a       a        e        o
e       e        e        ø
i       e        i        y
o       o        ø        o
ø       ø        ø        ø
u       o        y        u
y       ø        y        y
__________________________________

Umlaut takes precedence from right to left. For example, if an a precedes an i, it is umlauted to e and thus does not trigger a-umlaut in the vowel preceding it.

Vowel harmony

Some affixes undergo vowel harmony: the vowel in the affix always matches the nearest vowel of the stem. The classical Albic scholars analyzed this phenomenon as an eighth vowel phoneme that has none of the three possible vowel features and thus borrows them from the neighbouring vowel. Such a featureless vowel position in an affix is represented by the symbol _@_.

Phonotactics

Most Old Albic syllables are CV or CVC, but CCVC, CVCC and even CCVCC syllables occur. Two-consonant onsets generally consist of an obstruent followed by a liquid or semivowel, or of a stop preceded by a homorganic nasal or /s/. Two-consonant codas mostly consist of a liquid followed by an obstruent or nasal. Zero onsets occur, but only word-initially or after an open syllable. No more than three consonants may occur together between two vowels.

Accent

Old Albic has a phonetic stress accent that depends on syllable weight. Words with one or two syllables are always stressed on the first syllable. In words with three or more syllables, the accent falls on the antepenultimate (third-last) syllable if both the penultimate and ultimate syllable are light (i.e., they are open and have a short vowel), otherwise on the penultimate syllable.

This accent rule can be formulated in a more concise manner using the concept of the mora. A mora is a metric unit below the syllable. A light syllable consists of one mora, a heavy syllable of two. In light of this, it is the third-last mora that carries the accent in Old Albic.

Linking

In Old Albic, neighbouring words are often phonetically linked, similar to the liaison in French. Linking occurs between the elements of a noun phrase, as well as between a verb or a preposition and the following adverb or noun phrase. While each of the linked words has its own stress, the words are phonetically run together. If two words are linked of which the first ends in a vowel and the seconds begins with a stop, that stop is pronounced as a lenis stop just like a stop following a vowel in the same word. Thus, Old Albic shows a subphonemic initial mutation.

Morphology

Old Albic has a wealth of derivational and inflectional morphology. The noun distinguishes four genders, three numbers and eight cases; adjectives agree with the nouns in all these categories and have four degrees of comparison; verbs distinguish eight tense/aspect/mood forms and are conjugated for the person and number of their core arguments. Most of the Old Albic morphology is regular and agglutinating, though umlaut and other morpho-phonemic alternations cause several apparent irregularities in the paradigms.

Nouns

Animate and inanimate nouns; gender

Nouns in OA fall into one of two major classes: animate and inanimate. Animate nouns denote living beings, spirits, collective entities of such, and a small number of other things which were for some reason (mostly mythological) considered animate, such as heaven, the earth, celestial bodies and certain forces of nature. Most nouns referring to non-living objects (both natural and man-made) are inanimate. Most abstract nouns are also inanimate, but there are exceptions.

The importance of the animate-inanimate distinction for grammar is paramount. The animate noun has a greater number of cases; these extra cases are missing from the inanimate paradigm because certain arguments, such as agents, are required to be animate.

Within the animate noun class, three genders are distinguished: masculine, feminine and common/neuter. These are marked by final vowels:

Masculine     -o
Feminine      -e
Common/Neuter -a

The masculine and feminine genders are used only for entities of the corresponding natural gender, i.e. male or female, respectively. Whenever the gender is unknown to the speaker, irrelevant to the discourse, or not applicable (e.g. in case of collective entities), the common form is used. There are a few mythologically motivated exceptions: Nabo 'heaven' and Sino 'moon' are masculine, Dage 'earth' and Are 'sun' are feminine.

Many nouns exist in different gender forms, such as words for animal species, ethnic groups, professions etc. For example, the word for 'Elf' is alba, 'male Elf' albo, and 'female Elf' albe. A few nouns have fixed gender because the gender is part of the semantics of the word: atto 'father', amme 'mother'. Entities to which no gender can be ascribed are always common/neuter.

Inanimate nouns do not distinguish gender.

Number

The Old Albic noun has three numbers: singular, dual and plural. The dual is used only for matched pairs, e.g. of eyes, shoes, husband and wife, etc. It is no longer productive, and verbs agreeing with animate dual nouns take plural forms.

Animate nouns take the number suffixes -u for dual and -i for plural. In the common/neuter gender, these suffixes replace the gender vowel -a. In the masculine and feminine genders, the suffix is affixed to the gender vowel, e.g. chvanei 'bitches'. In words with fixed gender, the number marker replaces the gender vowel: nderi 'men'. The number suffixes of the inanimate noun are -um for dual and -im for plural.

Case

In Old Albic, the noun is inflected for eight cases: agentive, genitive, dative; objective, instrumental, locative, allative, ablative. Only animate nouns have forms for all these cases; inanimate nouns have a defective paradigm without agentive, genitive and dative cases.

The cases are formed from two case stems, the agentive stem (AS) and the objective stem (OS). Animate nouns have an AS and an OS, while inanimate nouns have only an OS. The animate agentive stem is the noun root with the gender/number vowel as discussed above. There are two ways to form the objective stem of an animate noun. Long objective stems are used in the non-singular numbers and with masculine and feminine forms of nouns with variable genders; they are formed by adding -m to the agentive stem. Examples: chvanem 'bitch', elbim 'Elves'. Pronouns also have long objective stems. Short objective stems are the usual way of forming an OS in all other occurences. The short OS is obtained by removing the gender vowel, e.g. cath (AS catha) `cat'. Adjectives also have short objective stems.

The agentive, genitive and dative cases are formed from the agentive stem, the other cases from the objective stem using the following endings:

Agentive     AS-Ø
Genitive     AS-s
Dative       AS-na
Objective    OS-Ø
Instrumental OS-i
Locative     OS-as
Allative     OS-ana
Ablative     OS-ada

This means that inanimate nouns have no agentive, genitive or dative case as said above.

The agentive is used to mark the animate, autonomous agent of the action denoted by the verb. Typically, the agent acts volitionally.

The genitive marks the (animate) alienable possessor of an object.

The dative has several functions: it marks the (animate) experiencer, the mentally affected object and the agent acting involuntarily out of accident (see Degrees of volition, below); it is also used with some prepositions that require an animate object.

The objective marks the (animate or inanimate) undergoer of an action or event, or the entity that is in a particular state.

The instrumental marks the (typically inanimate) instrument, way or means of an action, event or state, and is used to derive adverbs from adjectives. It also expresses an animate agent acting involuntarily under external force (see Degrees of volition, below).

The locative marks the place of an action or event, also the whole something is part of, and the inalienable possessor. It is also used with many prepositions.

The allative marks the direction or goal of an action or event.

The ablative marks the origin or source of an action or event.

Suffixaufnahme

Whenever a noun modifies another noun, it acts like an adjective. It does not only carry its own case marker, but is also marked for the gender, number and case of the head noun. For example, the locative plural of 'the father's houses' is mberimas attosemas, wherein the analysis of the form attosemas is as follows: atto `father' + -s genitive + -im plural OS + -as locative. This phenomenon is known as suffixaufnahme. Suffixaufnahme is only mandatory if the dependent noun is moved away from the head noun; in ordinary speech, the secondary endings are usually omitted.

The construct state

A noun modified by a possessor (genitive or locative) is in the construct state: it is definite without taking a definite article. Often, the case and number marking on the noun is left out and only the bare short OS appears, as these categories are expressed on the possessor (suffixaufnahme).

Adjectives

The inflection of adjectives follows that of nouns; they agree with the head noun in animacy, gender, number and case. The singular objective stem of the adjective is the simplest form, consisting of the base of the adjective, i.e. the root or the root with derivational morphemes attached to it. The dual and plural OSs are formed by adding the suffixes -um (dual) or -im (plural) to the singular OS. Each adjective has three animate singular agentive stems, one for each gender, formed by adding the respective gender vowel (-o, -e, -a) to the singular OS. The dual and plural ASs are formed with the vowels -u and -i suffixed to the singular OS.

Sample paradigm (ban `beautiful'):

                        AS   OS
__________________________________

Inanimate singular      --   ban
Masculine singular      bano ban
Feminine singular       bane ban
Common animate singular bana ban
Dual (*)                bonu bonum
Plural                  beni benim
__________________________________

(*) The dual number of the adjective already was a dying category in classical times. There are numerous examples of dual nouns accompanied by plural adjectives, and in Late Old Albic the dual number of the adjective had faded away completely.

Comparison

Comparison is a morphological category particular to the adjective. The positive degree is unmarked. The comparative degree is marked with the suffix -@r, the superlative degree is marked with the suffix -@th. There is also an equative degree ('as ... as'), which is marked with the suffix -@ch. These forms are the singular OSs; non-singular number forms and agentive stems are formed from them as shown above. The standard of comparison (i.e., the entity to which is compared) is in the instrumental case. Examples: banach elbi 'as beautiful as an Elf'; banar chveni 'more beautiful than a dog'; banath 'most beautiful'.

Adverbs from adjectives

The instrumental case of the adjective also serves as adverb: beni 'beautifully'.

The definite article

Old Albic has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article agrees with the noun in gender, number and case. It precedes the noun and has the following forms:

                        AS OS
_____________________________

Masculine singular      o  om
Feminine singular       e  em
Common animate singular a  am
Inanimate singular      -- am
Dual                    u  um
Plural                  i  im
_____________________________

The cases are formed normally from the agentive and objective stems.

Prepositions

Compared to a language like English, Old Albic makes rather little use of prepositions, as many of the relations expressed by prepositions in English are expressed by noun cases. Nevertheless, there are several prepositions in Old Albic; most govern the locative.

Local prepositions

An important subclass of prepositions are those expressing specific local relations such as 'above', 'below', 'inside', etc. These prepositions are actually inanimate nouns that are in turn inflected for case. Example:

tharas amas(as) mbaras(as) (locative) 'behind the house' tharana amas(ana) mbaras(ana) (allative) 'to behind the house' tharada amas(ada) mbaras(ada) (ablative) 'from behind the house'

(The suffixes in parantheses are secondary case suffixes (see suffixaufnahme, above) that are not mandatory, and usually omitted.)

Pronouns

The animate/inanimate opposition is a characteristic feature of the OA pronoun system. With the exception of 1st and 2nd person pronouns (for obvious reasons), each pronoun has different, often suppletive, animate and inanimate forms. Pronouns are generally inflected like nouns.

Personal pronouns

The 1st and 2nd person pronouns are always animate. In the dual and plural, there is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive 1st person pronouns. The difference is that the inclusive pronouns are used if the addressee is a member of the 'we'-group. The pronouns have the following agentive stems:

                          Singular Dual Plural
______________________________________________

1st person (exclusive)    ma       mu   mi
1st person (inclusive)             vu   vi
2nd person (familiar)     tha      thu  thi
2nd person (deferential)  la       lu   li
______________________________________________

The objective stems are formed by adding -m to the agentive stems. The cases are formed in the same way as for nouns. Pronominal core arguments are redundant and usually omitted, but the pronouns are used emphatically.

Anaphoric pronouns

The anaphoric ('3rd person') pronouns have different animate and inanimate forms. The animate pronouns have masculine, feminine and common gender forms. The agentive stems of the animate forms are so 'he', se 'she', sa 'he/she/it'. The dual and plural ASs are su 'they both' and si 'they', respectively. The OS of the inanimate anaphoric pronoun is tath 'it' (dual tothum, plural tethim).

Demonstratives

There are three demonstratives: san 'this (near me)', than 'that (near you)', an 'that (over there)'. They are inflected like adjectives and are placed at the end of the NP which also has a definite article, e.g. am mbar san 'this house' (lit. 'the house this'; inanimate objective singular), ena chvanena machena thanena 'those large dogs' (lit. 'the dogs large those'; animate dative plural).

Interrogative pronouns

The animate interrogative ('who?') has the agentive stem chva (OS chvam); the inanimate interrogative ('what?') is man.

Verbs

The OA verb is inflected for tense, aspect and mood, and conjugated for the person and number of subject and object. The overall structure of the finite verb is

A-PV-STEM-TM-OC-AC-M

wherein the abbreviations stand for the following:

A Augment: the first vowel of the verb is repeated to indicate perfective (aorist) aspect.

PV Preverb: this is a prefix that raises an oblique argument to direct object.

TM Tense/Mood marker (see below).

OC Objective conjugation. On transitive verbs, this refers to the direct object; on non-active intransitive verbs, to the subject.

AC Agentive conjugation; used only on active verbs, and only if the subject is in agentive or dative case.

M Middle voice.

Active vs. stative verbs

A very important distinction in OA, as in all Albic languages, is between active and stative verbs. Active verbs are verbs referring to actions performed by the subject; stative verbs are all the others. Verbs of perception and emotion are a subclass of active verbs. Some verbs, especially verbs of motion, are fluid verbs, i.e. they can be active or stative, depending on whether the subject moves out of itself or not.

All transitive verbs are active. Active verbs take agentive conjugation suffixes indicating person and number of the subject; transitive verbs also take objective conjugation suffixes indicating person and number of the object. Stative verbs take objective conjugation suffixes indicating person and number of the subject.

This distinction also affects case marking. Subjects of active verbs are marked with the agentive or dative case, depending on the degree of volition of the subject. The basic case marking is agentive, except verbs of perception and emotion that usually take the dative case. (This also means that the subject has to be animate, though a zero-agent construction with an inanimate complement in instrumental case can be used to express notions such as `The stone smashed the pot'.) In contrast, subjects of stative verbs as well as direct objects are marked with the objective case.

Root verbs vs. derived verbs

Verbs can be divided into root verbs and derived verbs after the structure of the stem. Root verbs are the more basic ones; their stem consists of a single root. Derived verbs are all verbs derived from nouns, adjectives, other verbs etc. This includes nominal and adjectival predicates. Root verbs and derived verbs differ in the form of certain inflectional markings, which have more regular, agglutinative forms with derived verbs. Thus, while the stem structure of derived verbs is more complex, their inflections are simpler.

Tense/Mood/Aspect

There are three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. In the indicative and subjunctive moods, two aspects, imperfective and perfective (aorist) are distinguished; the imperfective indicative is in turn divided into four tenses: present, imperfect (past), future and conditional.

The present tense refers to an ongoing event in the present. It is marked by the suffix -a- following the stem. This suffix and the 3rd person singular objective suffix coalesce into -á-: _meláma_ `I love him/her'.

The imperfect tense refers to an ongoing event (seen as uncompleted) in the past. The imperfect tense of a derived verb is marked by a suffix -@n-. In case of a root verb, the suffix is -n-; if the root ends in a stop or fricative, the nasal is infixed before the final consonant, assimilating to the point of assimilation of the obstruent, e.g. brit-' `break' → brint- 'broke'; brintama 'I broke it'. Otherwise, the nasal is suffixed: sil- 'shine' → silna 'it shone'. If the root ends in a nasal, the suffix is -@n-, as in a derived verb. An example of a derived verb: marar- 'kill' → mararanara `he killed him'.

The future tense is used for ongoing events in the future. It is marked with a suffix -u-.

The conditional, morphologically a cross between imperfect and future, is used to refer to hypothetical events, especially in antecedents of conditional clauses. It is marked by -u- suffixed to the imperfect, e.g. brintu-, silnu-, mararanu-.

The aorist usually refers to completed events in the past and is used as the narrative tense. It thus contrasts mainly with the imperfect. However, an event referred to by the aorist need not be in the past; the aorist is also used to express anteriority in relation to another event, even if the event referred to is still ongoing or altogether in the future. For example, in a sentence such as When the sun sets, we will open the feast, the antecedent when the sun sets would be put in the aorist:

Sí evessa Are, pathymi am matanal.

Another use of the aorist is the gnomic aorist, which expresses timeless truth. The aorist is marked by the augment, a prefix @- consisting of the root vowel. If the root has an initial vowel, an h is inserted between the augment and the root-initial vowel:

Are ahaussa. 'The sun has risen.' (aus- 'to rise')

The subjunctive is marked by the suffix -i-. The aorist subjunctive is marked by augment and -i-. The aorist subjunctive is used as a 'hearsay form' ('it may have been that...').

The imperative is the bare stem, followed by an objective conjugation ending when transitive. Only active verbs form an imperative.

Objective conjugation

The objective conjugation endings agree with an argument of the verb that appears in the objective case. This is the direct object of a transitive verb or the subject of a stative verb such as dat- 'to fall'.

            Singular Plural
___________________________

1st person  -ha      -hi
2nd person  -cha     -chi
3rd person  -a       -i
___________________________

The verb agrees in number with the object only if the object is animate. If the object is inanimate, the conjugation is always singular (-a), regardless of the number of the object.

Agentive conjugation

The agentive conjugation endings are used with active verbs and mark agreement with an agentive or dative subject. An instrumental-case 'subject' triggers no agreement as it isn't really a subject but an oblique complement to a zero-agent clause.

            Singular Plural
____________________________

1st person  -ma      -mi
2nd person  -tha     -thi
3rd person  -sa/-ra  -si/-ri
____________________________

The 3rd person endings have several allophones. The forms -ra and -ri appear after vowels and r; after l, the endings take the forms -la and -li. In all other cases, the endings are -sa and -si, which are the underlying forms (the post-vocalic -ra and -ri forms result from rhotacism of intervocalic *s, the forms that occur after l and r from assimilation). However, if the ending follows a stop (including ph, th and ch), metathesis occurs and the s of the ending precedes the stop: masta 'he eats' (mat- 'to eat').

Middle

The middle voice is marked with the suffix -r. It has two functions. Used intransitively, it has reflexive meaning; used transitively, it denotes the so-called subject version, i.e. that the subject acts on behalf of itself. The middle never functions as a passive.

Infinite forms

There are four participles: imperfective agentive, perfective agentive, imperfective objective, perfective objective. The participles are formed with the suffixes -@nth- (agentive) and -@th (objective); the perfective participles were also marked with an augment.

Examples:

matanth 'eating' amatanth 'having eaten' matath 'being eaten' amatath 'eaten'

The participles are inflected like regular adjectives.

There is also a verbal noun referring to the action/state/event denoted by the verb which plays an infinitive-like role; it is in inanimate noun formed with the suffix -@s, e.g. matas '(act of) eating'.

Syntax

The syntax of Old Albic is characterized by great freedom of word order, due to the rich inflectional morphology of the language, especially its extensive case marking. Nevertheless, there is a basic, unmarked order that is generally adhered to in normal speech as well as prose writing; the full freedom of word order is only exploited in poetry. In the basic order, the heads generally precede their dependents. Thus, adjectives follow nouns, and adverbs and arguments (unless topicalized) follow the verb.

Clause structure

Phrase order

The normal phrase order is Verb-Subject-Object (VSO); however, this order is often overridden by topicalization, which moves the topic noun phrase (NP) into sentence-initial position. The topic NP can be any of the core arguments or an oblique argument. Hence, most main clauses practically have the verb in the second position after the topic, but subclauses are usually VSO. In poetry, any word order can be encountered.

Zero-agent and zero-object constructions

In Old Albic, there is neither a passive nor an antipassive voice. Instead, the grammar allows to leave away any (even both) of the core arguments. This also means that the verb takes no conjugation affix corresponding with the deleted NP. Such a construction can still take oblique complements.

Thus, the Old Albic equivalent to a zero-agent passive (such as English 'The ball is thrown') is the zero-agent construction: the transitive verb is treated like a stative verb with the direct object as the sole core argument. Similarly, a transitive verb an be detransitivized by the zero-object construction. Both constructions can even be combined in order to express notions such as 'There was singing'.

Degrees of volition

The subject of an active verb can appear in different cases depending on the degree of volition. The normal case marking for a subject of an active verb (except for verbs of perception or emotion) is the agentive; in order to express that the subject is acting accidentally rather than volitionally, it can be put in the dative case.

To negated verbs, this applies such that the agentive indicates that the subject purportedly fails to act, while the dative indicates that it fails to act out of error, e.g. attempts the action but fails, or forgot about it. Clearly, the dative case is the more neutral and more polite form to use with a negated verb.

Verbs of perception and emotion normally take a dative subject. The subject, however, can also be put in agentive case to express an act of deliberate observation rather than cursory perception. For example, Ena nderona terara im chvanam, with dative subject, means 'The man sees the dog', while O ndero terara am chvanam, with agentive subject, means 'The man watches the dog'.

In a sense, there is a third degree of volition expressed by the instrumental case. This expresses that the subject acts under external force, possibly against its will. If the subject is in instrumental case, the verb takes no agentive conjugation suffix. This is really nothing else than a zero-agent construction with an instrumental complement. The instrumental-case 'subject', unlike an agentive or dative subject, can be inanimate.

Stative verbs naturally do not distinguish any degrees of volition, and their subjects are always marked with the objective case. Fluid verbs such as verbs of motion, however, distinguish degrees of volition normally when used as active verbs. Thus, they allow four different case markings on subjects. Examples:

• O ndero acvamsa. (agentive) 'The man has come (volitionally).'
• Ona nderona acvamsa. (dative) 'The man has come (accidentally).'
• Ømi nderømi acvam. (instrumental) 'The man has come (under force).'
• Om nderom acvama. (objective) 'The man has come (being carried).'

These examples also demonstrate the different use of conjugation suffixes.

Nominal predicates

Nouns and adjectives can be used as predicates. There is no explicit copula; instead, the predicate noun (or adjective) is inflected like a verb. Such predicate nouns are derived stative verbs. The verb stem is the objective stem, agreeing with gender (if animate) and number with the subject.

The Noun Phrase

In the noun phrase (NP), the article (if present) goes first; next come numerals. These elements precede the noun. Adjectives and attribute NPs (genitive or locative) follow the noun; so do relative clauses. Demonstratives are always placed at the end of the NP; only relative clauses, if present, are placed after the demonstrative. All elements are inflected to agree with the noun in gender (except the article and numerals), number and case. Adnominal genitives and locatives are treated like adjectives (suffixaufnahme); however, a possessed noun counts as definite and needs no article - it is in the construct state. Because of this extensive case marking, the elements of the NP can be rearranged quite freely in poetry, even placed at different locations in the clause with the verb or elements of other NPs in between!

Subclauses

Relative clauses

Relative clauses usually follow the NP they modify. The relative clause is linked to the head noun by the particle, which is identical to the definite article and agrees with the gender, case and number of the head noun. In the clause itself, the verb occupies the first position. If the head noun occupies an oblique role in the relative clause, the relative clause contains a resumptive pronoun that refers back to the head noun. This resumptive pronoun is an anaphoric pronoun that agrees with the head noun in gender. If the head noun occupies a core (agentive or objective) role in the relative clause, the resumptive pronoun is not necessary.

Examples:

• o ndero o matara am mbas 'the man who eats the bread'
• am mbas am matara o ndero 'the bread which the man eats'
• am mbar am matara o ndero am mbas tathas 'the house which the man eats the bread in'

Because the relative particle is inflected for the gender, case and number of the head noun, the relative clause can be moved to another position (e.g., to the end of the sentence to avoid center-embedding with nested relative clauses) without causing ambiguity: in the sentence

O ndero melara im hinim o matara am mbas.

the relative clause o matara am mbas can only belong to o ndero because o, like o ndero, is masculine agentive singular (and the verb in the relative clause has a singular agent). If it belonged to the object _im hinim_, the sentence would be

O ndero melara im hinim im materi am mbas.

(Note also that the verb in the relative clause has a plural agent here.)

Complement clauses

A complement clause is a clause that serves as the object of a verb (the matrix verb). These follow a similar syntax as relative clauses. The clause is introduced by the particle am; within the clause, the verb precedes its arguments. The matrix verb takes a singular objective conjugation suffix.

Example:

Terama am matara o ndero am mbas.
'I see that the mean eats the bread.'