Proto-Piti morphology
- Main article: Proto-Piti
This page gives an extensive description of Proto-Piti morphological features.
Nouns
Cases
Proto-Piti nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 9 cases:
| Agentive | This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is generally used only with animate nouns. |
| Passive | This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form. |
| Ablative | This case marks primarily a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, body parts), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging. It also marks the point of origin of a movement (motion from a place). It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb. |
| Genitive | This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will. It is generally used only with animate nouns. |
| Terminative | This case marks primarily the final point of a movement (motion toward a place). It can also mark the indirect object, and, in a broad sense, the final purpose of an action or a state. |
| Causative | This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state. |
| Instrumental | This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It is generally used only with inanimate nouns. |
| Abessive | This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It is generally used only with inanimate nouns. |
| Locative | This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location). It can also have a temporal value. It is generally used only with inanimate nouns. |
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:
- Primary main cases: agentive, genitive
- Secondary main cases: passive, ablative
- Primary oblique cases: terminative, causative
- Secondary oblique cases: instrumental, abessive, locative
Noun declension
As already mentioned, the nominal root has a CVCV structure. This structure can be derivatively and semantically expanded by other syllables, while still preserving its vowel-ending structure.
Nouns do decline, according to their role in the sentence for case. They also distinguish three morphological numbers, singular, dual, and plural.
A nominal root is thus declined for case and number by adding the following morphemes:
| Case morphemes | |
| -li | |
| - | |
| -ra | |
| -ʂu | |
| -χæ | |
| -kʰu | |
| -kʰæ | |
| -ŋil | |
| -ʈar | |
| Numeral morphemes | |
| - | |
| -no | |
| -ʔi | |
In the pre-diasporic period, these morphemes are added to the root without a fixed pattern. Numeral morphemes can, indeed, be freely placed before or after the case morphemes.
Some examples are shown below: a typical active or animate noun, papu, father, and a typical inactive or inanimate noun, soːŋo, house.
| papuli | - | |
| papu | soːŋo | |
| papura | - | |
| papuʂu | soːŋoʂu | |
| papuχæ | soːŋoχæ | |
| papukʰu | soːŋokʰu | |
| - | soːŋokʰæ | |
| - | soːŋoŋil | |
| - | soːŋoʈar | |
The endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun.
| precasual pattern | postcasual pattern | precasual pattern | postcasual pattern | |
| papunoli | papulino | - | - | |
| papuno | papuno | soːŋono | soːŋono | |
| papunora | papurano | - | - | |
| papunoʂu | papuʂuno | soːŋonoʂu | soːŋoʂuno | |
| papunoχæ | papuχæno | soːŋonoχæ | soːŋoχæno | |
| papunokʰu | papukʰuno | soːŋonokʰu | soːŋokʰuno | |
| - | - | soːŋonokʰæ | soːŋokʰæno | |
| - | - | soːŋonoŋil | soːŋoŋilno | |
| - | - | soːŋonoʈar | soːŋoʈarno | |
As in the singular declension, the endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun. The plural morpheme, -no, can be placed either before or after the case morphemes, without a fixed pattern. In the pre-diasporic period the numeral morpheme position is essentially free and optional.
| precasual pattern | postcasual pattern | precasual pattern | postcasual pattern | |
| papuʔili | papuliʔi | - | - | |
| papuʔi | papuʔi | soːŋoʔi | soːŋoʔi | |
| papuʔira | papuraʔi | - | - | |
| papuʔiʂu | papuʂuʔi | soːŋoʔiʂu | soːŋoʂuʔi | |
| papuʔiχæ | papuχæʔi | soːŋoʔiχæ | soːŋoχæʔi | |
| papuʔikʰu | papukʰuʔi | soːŋoʔikʰu | soːŋokʰuʔi | |
| - | - | soːŋoʔikʰæ | soːŋokʰæʔi | |
| - | - | soːŋoʔiŋil | soːŋoŋilʔi | |
| - | - | soːŋoʔiʈar | soːŋoʈarʔi | |
As in the singular declension, the endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun. The dual morpheme, -ʔi, can be placed either before or after the case morphemes, without a fixed pattern. In the pre-diasporic period the numeral morpheme position is essentially free and optional.
Adjectives
Adjectival roots have the same structure as the nominal roots, namely CVCV. Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.
The agreement of adjectives in case and number with the noun they specify is not clear. This feature seems to have spread in the proto-language before the diasporic period, but unsystematically, since some adjectival types do not agree with the nouns even in the later period.
Adjectives can be morphologically derived from nominal roots by adding the morpheme -ko.
Pronouns
In the archaic period, pronouns are regarded as grammatical roots, without an actual semantic meaning and only as grammatical referents. Their structure is thus usually (C)V(C). However, in a later pre-diasporic period, most pronominal roots are expanded to a disyllabic noun-type root, usually through the morphemes -tu and -lo.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns convey only the first two persons (1st and 2nd) without any distinction in number.
Both the first and the second person have indeed two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed heteroclitic declension; the first forms convey the agentive case, and the second forms convey the passive case, the only cases originally conveyed by the personal pronoun.
These forms are used in a very earlier period, when the basic word order is still VSO. Later they show a marked tendency to cliticization to the verbal form. Thus, new agentive forms for the personal pronouns arise, by expanding the original roots with the morpheme -tu. The passive forms are usually not expanded, likely because they already have a CV syllabic structure.
Other cases are built by adding the case endings to these forms. These endings are freely added on both heretoclitic roots, whitout a clear choice. It is widely regarded that this choice of root in pronominal declension is still free in the pre-diasporic period. As these pronouns intrinsically refer to a semantically animate noun, the endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to these roots.
jora |
næra | |
joʂu |
næʂu | |
joχæ |
næχæ | |
jokʰu |
nækʰu | |
As in the nominal declension, both the plural morpheme, -no, and the dual morpheme, -ʔi, can be freely placed either before or after the case morphemes, without a fixed pattern. In the pre-diasporic period the numeral morpheme position is essentially free and optional.
jonora |
jorano |
nænora |
nærano | |
jonoʂu |
joʂuno |
nænoʂu |
næʂuno | |
jonoχæ |
joχæno |
nænoχæ |
næχæno | |
jonokʰu |
jokʰuno |
nænokʰu |
nækʰuno | |
joʔira |
joraʔi |
næʔira |
næraʔi | |
joʔiʂu |
joʂuʔi |
næʔiʂu |
næʂuʔi | |
joʔiχæ |
joχæʔi |
næʔiχæ |
næχæʔi | |
joʔikʰu |
jokʰuʔi |
næʔikʰu |
nækʰuʔi | |
The genitive and ablative forms of these pronouns can play the role of indeclinable possessive adjectives or pronouns, according to their meaning.
Interrogative pronouns
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots: one referring to active animate entities (who?) and one referring to inactive inanimate entities (what?).
- what: ʂæ
- who: ʂaː
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy of their referent. However, some declined forms usually acquire new meanings, depending on the selected case:
- ʂæʈar: where (static location)
- ʂæχæ: where (motion toward)
- ʂækʰu: why (cause)
- ʂæko: which (adjectival form)
Both pronominal root can be expanded with the suffixal morphemes -tu and -lo.
Numerals
Numeral roots are meant as adjective-like roots, with a CVCV structure. They are, however, usually treated as indeclinable roots.
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.
Cardinal numerals
The first ten cardinal numbers are forms on their own:
| ʂaːʔo | |
| ʔaki | |
| mikoː | |
| ŋoːɬe | |
| ṕaːŋe | |
| tʰuːɬa | |
| χaʂæ | |
| ḱuʔe | |
| ʈoːju | |
| pʰeːʔo |
The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are forms on their own:
| ɳaːt́u | |
| ɬiʔaː |
Other numerals do not have indipendent roots. Their forms are built by combining quite freely the already existing roots. There are no fixed construction patterns, as it is noticeable from the different results in daughter languages.
Numerals from 11 to 19 can be built:
- With the construction NUM + pʰeːʔo:
| ʂaːʔopʰeːʔo |
- With the construction NUM + pʰeːʔo + na:
| ʂaːʔopʰeːʔona |
The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands can be built:
- With the construction NUM + re + pʰeːʔo / ɳaːt́u / ɬiʔaː:
| mikoːrepʰeːʔo | |
| tʰuːɬareɳaːt́u | |
| ʈoːjureɬiʔaː |
- With the construction NUM + re + pʰeːʔonu / ɳaːt́unu / ɬiʔaːnu:
| mikoːrepʰeːʔonu | |
| tʰuːɬareɳaːt́unu | |
| ʈoːjureɬiʔaːnu |
- With the construction NUM + re + pʰeːʔotu(nu) / ɳaːt́utu(nu) / ɬiʔaːtu(nu):
| mikoːrepʰeːʔotu(nu) | |
| tʰuːɬareɳaːt́utu(nu) | |
| ʈoːjureɬiʔaːtu(nu) |
- With the construction NUM + re + pʰeːʔot́u(nu) / ɳaːt́ut́u(nu) / ɬiʔaːt́u(nu):
| mikoːrepʰeːʔot́u(nu) | |
| tʰuːɬareɳaːt́ut́u(nu) | |
| ʈoːjureɬiʔaːt́u(nu) |
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.
Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:
- 1985: ɬiʔaː ʈoːjureɳaːt́u ḱuʔerepʰeːʔo ṕaːŋe
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals can be formed:
- by adding the adjectival ending -ko to the cardinal numeral form:
ʂaːʔo → ʂaːʔoko one → first
- by adding the comparative ending -roː to the cardinal numeral form:
tʰuːɬa → tʰuːɬaroː six → sixth
- by adding the comparative ending -tu to the cardinal numeral form:
ŋoːɬe → ŋoːɬetu four → fourth
- by adding the comparative ending -lo to the cardinal numeral form:
ḱuʔe → ḱuʔelo eight → eighth
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25th: ʔakirepʰeːʔo ṕaːŋeko
Fractional numerals
Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -ŋuː to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numeral one:
χaʂæ → χaʂæŋuː seven → seventh
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25th: ʔakirepʰeːʔo ṕaːŋeŋuː
There is, however, one irregular suppletive form:
| ḱuːpho |
Distributive numerals
Distributive numerals can be formed:
- by adding the adjectival ending -jeː to the cardinal numeral form:
mikoː → mikoːjeː three → three each
- by adding the comparative ending -rejeː to the cardinal numeral form:
ʈoːju → ʈoːjurejeː nine → nine each
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: ʔakirepʰeːʔo ṕaːŋejeː
Multiplier numerals
Multiplier numerals can be formed:
- by adding the adjectival ending -re to the cardinal numeral form:
ʂaːʔo → ʂaːʔore one → single, once
- by adding the comparative ending -reko to the cardinal numeral form:
ʔaki → ʔakireko two → double, twice, twofold
- by adding the comparative ending -renæ to the cardinal numeral form:
pʰeːʔo → pʰeːʔorenæ ten → tenfold, ten times
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: ʔakirepʰeːʔo ṕaːŋere
Verbs
The main distinction made in the verbal system of Proto-Piti language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots, with a CVCVC structure, for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (Rimp) and the perfective root (Rprf).
The basic form is generally the imperfective root. The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C
Example:
Rimp = ŋaŋok- → Rprf = ŋoŋak-
There is a limited amount of verbal roots with a CVC structure, called monosyllabic roots. These roots do not have a perfective counterpart, not displaying, thus, the usual introflexive process of vowel switching.
Rimp = tʰaːŋ-
These roots display thus only one aspect, usually the imperfective.
Another distinction, newer than the aspectual distinction, is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.
Rimp = ŋaŋok- → Rimp-past = ʔaŋaŋok- Rimp = tʰaːŋ- → Rimp-past = ʔatʰaːŋ-
The following modal infixes can be added to every verbal root:
- indicative: Ø
- subjunctive: -iɳ-
- optative: -oṕ-
- potential: -æʈ-
As they infer a modal value to the root, without altering the aspectual information, these infixes are not involved in the vowel switching process.
In the archaic period, the verb is not declined for person or bumber, and the original personal pronoun are mandatorily used to convey the first and the second person. Since the word order is initially VSO, these pronouns are placed right after the verbal form. They are then cliticized to the verb, turning into actual personal endings. In an earlier stage, these endings convey only the first two persons, without distinguishing any number.
| Personal morphemes | |
| -oɬ | |
| -er | |
The third person displays two possible endings: -æt́, derived from the demonstrative pronominal root, and -Ø, namely a zero marking. This dichotomy arises from the original lacking of any personal marking when the subject is clearly expressed. Usage of such ending, however, remain significantly unclear and the daughter languages display different strategies in their development.
Number marking appears in a later, but still pre-diasporic, period. It is considerably free and unstable. Similarly to the nominal declension, numeral morphemes can be freely placed before or after the personal morphemes.
| Numeral morphemes | |
| - | |
| -on | |
| -iʔ | |
In the later pre-diasporic period, the scheme of the personal endings looks like this:
| 1st sing. | ||
| 2nd sing. | ||
| 3rd sing. | ||
| 1st dual | ||
| 2nd dual | ||
| 3rd dual | ||
| 1st plur. | ||
| 2nd plur. | ||
| 3rd plur. | ||
These endings are added after the modal infixes. As they derive from pronominal or numeral cliticized forms, these endings are not involved in the vowel switching process.
There are, moreover, other endings, which are used to create non-verbal non-finite forms. There are two nominal forms, the infinitive1, and the the infinitive2, and two adjectival forms, the active participle and the passive participle. These endings can be added to both aspectual root and take the augment, to convey their aspectual and temporal value..
- infinitive1: -æme
- infinitive2: -ika
- agentive participle: -iːto
- passive participle: -uki
As these endings infer a nominal/adjectival value to the root, without altering the aspectual information, these infixes are not involved in the vowel switching process.
Verbal roots can be also expanded by derivative morpheme, both suffixes and prefixes. Suffixes infer an additional grammatical information, while prefixes infer an additional semantical meaning to the root:
Rimp = ʔimeːχek- → Rprf = ʔeːmiχek-
Rimp = muːʔimeːχ- → Rprf = muːʔeːmiχ-
As these endings infer a derivative value to the root, without altering the aspectual information, these infixes are not involved in the vowel switching process. A notable exception affects the monosyllabic roots with a CVC structures. These endings, when added to such roots, can be involved in the vowel switching process, as they can infer a grammatical information, also an aspectual one.
ʔæɳ- → Rimp = ʔæɳek- → Rprf = ʔeɳæk-
Verbal conjugation
Taking as an example the verbal root liːloṕ-, meaning to see, the different aspectual, temporal and modal forms of a Proto-Piti verb are shown.
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
| 1st dual | ||||
| 2nd dual | ||||
| 3rd dual | ||||
Non-verbal forms, also known as non-finite forms, are not conjugated in person, and they are declined within the nominal declension. As they follow the normal nominal/adjectival declension, the fully declined forms are not shown. The infinitival forms are meant as inactive nouns.
| present | ||
| past | ||
| present | ||
| past | ||
| present | ||
| past | ||
| present | ||
| past | ||
Negation
There are two different ways of negating a root, depending on whether the negated root is verbal or nominal.
- 1. The negation of a verbal root is conveyed by the negative verbal root ʔiːs-. As it is a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective counterpart. It has the infinitive1 of the negated verb as direct object. The object of the infinitival form, is, as a rule, declined in the ablative case.
ɬiːroli ʔoːna liːloṕ(æt́) → ɬiːroli ʔoːnaʂu liːloṕæme ʔiːs(æt́) the man sees the woman → the man does not see the woman
- Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense, through the augment. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form, as the negative root has no aspectual counterpart.
ɬiːroli ʔoːna ʔaloliːṕ(æt́) → ɬiːroli ʔoːnaʂu loliːṕæme ʔaʔiːs(æt́) the man saw the woman → the man did not see the woman
- There is no need to place the augment onto the infinitive1, as it is already placed onto the negative root. However, it can be found on both verbal forms, as a redundant agreement between roots.
- 2. The negation of a nominal root is conveyed by the negative adjectival root χeːsu. This root is placed, as a normal adjective, before every non-verbal root to be negated.
pʰuːḱa ʔaloliːṕoɬ → χeːsu pʰuːḱa ʔaloliːṕoɬ I saw a person → I did not see a person
The usage of both roots is not exchangeable, and they tend not to be used together in the same clause. Thus, double negatives are generally not allowed.
