Proto-Alri morphology

Main article: Proto-Alri

This page gives an extensive description of Proto-Alri morphological features.

The case system

Proto-Alri nouns, adjectives, and pronouns do decline, according to an ergative-absolutive system with 9 cases:

Case	Meaning
Ergative	This case marks the subject of a transitive verb.
Absolutive	This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Possessive	This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will.
Terminative	This case marks the final point of a movement (motion toward a place), and, in a broad sense, the indirect object. In a broader sense, it can also mark a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, body parts), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging.
Ablative	This case marks the point of origin of a movement (motion from a place). It can also mark the origin or the source.
Causative	This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.
Benefactive	This case marks the final purpose of an action or a state. In a broad sense, it marks the ultimate beneficiary of an action or a state.
Instrumental	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state.
Locative	This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location).

The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:

1. Primary main cases: ergative, possessive
2. Secondary main cases: assolutive
3. Primary oblique cases: terminative, ablative, causative, benefactive
4. Secondary oblique cases: instrumental, locative

Although nouns display neither gender nor class distinction, a noun referring to an intrisically animate entity cannot be declined in the secondary oblique cases, while a noun referring to an intrinsically inanimate entity cannot be declined in the primary main cases.

Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various postpositions, which can select one or more cases.

The noun

As already mentioned, the word root has a (C)VC structure. When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-.

ṫiʡ- → ṫiʡ- + -e- → ṫiʡe
human → person, human 

There is, however, a limited amount of exceptions, in which the root is not expanded by any suffix, by having a clear noun role.

Nouns do decline, according to their role in the sentence for case. They also distinguish two morphological numbers, singular, and plural.

A nominal root is thus declined for case and number by adding the following morphemes:

Numeral morphemes
singular	-
plural	-j-/-ij-
Case morphemes
ergative	-k̇ə
absolutive	-
possessive	-ṗu
terminative	-ʈu
ablative	-ʡo
causative	-no
benefactive	-pə
instrumental	-ma
locative	-wa

The numeral morpheme is always placed before the case morphemes. The form -ij- is added after a semivowel.

Some examples are shown below: a typical active or animate noun, rome, father, and a typical inactive or inanimate noun, tojme, house.

	rome		tojme
	singular	plural	singular	plural
ergative	romek̇ə	romejk̇ə
absolutive	rome	romej	tojme	tojmej
possessive	romeṗu	romejṗu
terminative	romeʈu	romejʈu	tojmeʈu	tojmejʈu
ablative	romeʡo	romejʡo	tojmeʡo	tojmejʡo
causative	romeno	romejno	tojmeno	tojmejno
benefactive	romepə	romejpə	tojmepə	tojmejpə
instrumental			tojmema	tojmejma
locative			tojmewa	tojmejwa

The endings for the secondary oblique cases are not usually added to a semantically animate noun, while the endings for the primary main cases are not usually added to a semantically inanimate noun.

The adjective

As already mentioned, the word root has a (C)VC structure. When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-.

ʂojɽ- → ʂojɽ- + -i- → ʂojɽi
narrowness → narrow 

There are, however, many other suffixes and prefixes that can expand the root, especially when the root has a clear noun role and it is not expanded by the main adjectival suffix.

ṫiʡ- → ṫiʡ- + -ri- → ṫiʡri
human → human 

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings.

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Examples: səjmi, young, and nupʰi, new, with a semantically animate noun, rome, father, and a semantically inanimate noun, tojme, house.

	symi rome
	singular	plural
ergative	symik̇ə romek̇ə	symijk̇ə romejk̇ə
absolutive	symi rome	symij romej
possessive	symiṗu romeṗu	symijṗu romejṗu
terminative	symiʈu romeʈu	symijʈu romejʈu
ablative	symiʡo romeʡo	symijʡo romejʡo
causative	symino romeno	symijno romejno
benefactive	symipə romepə	symijpə romejpə
instrumental	-	-
locative	-	-

	nupʰi tojme
	singular	plural
ergative	-	-
absolutive	nupʰi tojme	nupʰij tojmej
possessive	-	-
terminative	nupʰiʈu tojmeʈu	nupʰijʈu tojmejʈu
ablative	nupʰiʡo tojmeʡo	nupʰijʡo tojmejʡo
causative	nupʰino tojmeno	nupʰijno tojmejno
benefactive	nupʰipə tojmepə	nupʰijpə tojmejpə
instrumental	nupʰima tojmema	nupʰijma tojmejma
locative	nupʰiwa tojmewa	'nupʰijwa tojmejwa

The pronoun

Pronominal forms are conveyed by a nominal/verbal root, with a typical (C)VC structure. When taking a pronominal role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-.

am- → am- + -e- → ame
1st person → I 

There is, however, a limited amount of exceptions, in which the root is not expanded by any suffix, by having a clear noun role.

Pronouns are declined in case, according to the role they play in the clause. They also usually distinguish two numbers, singular and plural.

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns convey only the first two persons (1^st and 2^nd) without any distinction in number.

1st person	am-
2st person	it-

They are usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-. They are declined as follows:

	1st person		2nd person
	singular	plural	singular	plural
ergative	amek̇ə	amejk̇ə	itek̇ə	itejk̇ə
absolutive	ame	amej	ite	itej
possessive	ameṗu	amejṗu	iteṗu	itejṗu
terminative	ameʈu	amejʈu	iteʈu	itejʈu
ablative	ameʡo	amejʡo	iteʡo	itejʡo
causative	ameno	amejno	iteno	itejno
benefactive	amepə	amejpə	itepə	itejpə
instrumental
locative

First and second person forms are meant as referents to intrisically animate entities; the endings for secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them.

These pronominal root can also be expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-. In this case they play the role of possessive adjectives, without further information about intentional possession or unintentional belonging.

am- → am- + -i- → ami
1st person → my, our 

The possessive and terminative case of the personal pronouns can specify the grammatical number of the owner, if necessary, as it is not specified by the possessive adjectives:

ameṗu ami laje majrom
I saw my dog

These forms can also be used as possessive pronouns.

amik̇ə romek̇ə itejʈu oke majru
My father saw yours

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different roots:

• quality: ṫjejm-
• quantity: sjowp-

When taking a noun role, the root is usually expanded by the nominal suffix -e-.

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -e- → ṫjejme
interr. → what?, who? 

When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by the adjectival suffix -i-.

ṫjejm- → ṫjejm- + -i- → ṫjejmi
interr. → which?  

As pronouns, these forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms according to the animacy of the referred noun.

	who? / what?		how much? / how many?
	singular	plural	singular	plural
ergative	ṫjejmek̇ə	ṫjejmejk̇ə	sjowpek̇ə	sjowpejk̇ə
absolutive	ṫjejme	ṫjejmej	sjowpe	sjowpej
possessive	ṫjejmeṗu	ṫjejmejṗu	sjowpeṗu	sjowpejṗu
terminative	ṫjejmeʈu	ṫjejmejʈu	sjowpeʈu	sjowpejʈu
ablative	ṫjejmeʡo	ṫjejmejʡo	sjowpeʡo	sjowpejʡo
causative	ṫjejmeno	ṫjejmejno	sjowpeno	sjowpejno
benefactive	ṫjejmepə	ṫjejmejpə	sjowpepə	sjowpejpə
instrumental	ṫjejmema	ṫjejmejma	sjowpema	sjowpejma
locative	ṫjejmewa	ṫjejmejwa	sjowpewa	sjowpejwa

The quality root can refer freely to either animate or inanimate entities. A distinction of animacy can be inferred by the context or by choice of case forms. However, some declined forms can acquire new interrogative meanings depending on the selected case:

• ṫjejmewa: where (static location)
• ṫjejmeʈu: where (motion toward)
• ṫjejmeno : why (cause)

These forms, while broadly undefined in their meaning, are usually specified by using the interrogative adjective with other generic or specific nouns:

• ṫjejmewa weʡewa: in which place (static location)
• ṫjejmeʈu weʡeʈu: in which place (motion toward)

Numerals

Numeral roots are meant as nominal-verbal roots, with a (C)VC- structure.

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are forms on their own:

digit	noun form
1:	ṫjes-
2:	moʈ-
3:	pʰijn-
4:	sjajr-
5:	ʂewṗ-
6:	kakʰ-
7:	njuʂ-
8:	towʡ-
9:	pəjt-
10:	lujm-

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are forms on their own:

digit	noun form
100:	ʂowk̇-
1000:	k̇ajʂ-

If these roots have an adjoining noun, the adjectival ending -i is added to them. They are therefore treated like an adjective and declined in agreement with the noun.

ʂewṗ- → ʂewṗ- + -i- → ʂewṗi
five

If these roots are used as simple count forms, or in a pronominal role, the nominal ending -e is added to them. They are therefore treated like a pronoun and declined according the case required by their syntactical role.

njuʂ- → njuʂ- + -e- → njuʂe
seven

Other numerals do not have indipendent roots. Their forms are built by combining quite freely the already existing roots. There are no fixed construction patterns, as it is noticeable from the different results in daughter languages.

The numerals for tens, hundreds and thousands can be built:

• With the numeral root + the nominal ending -e, as an independent numeral form, NUM + -e:

digit	noun form
tens:	lujime
hundreds:	ʂowk̇e
thousands:	k̇ajʂe

• With the numeral root + the derivative suffix -ʂi, as an independent numeral form, NUM + -ʂi:

digit	noun form
tens:	lujimʂi
hundreds:	ʂowk̇ʂi
thousands:	k̇ajʂəʂi

The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands can be built:

• With the numeral root + lujme/ʂowk̇e/k̇ajʂe in the plural number, NUM + -lujmej/-ʂowk̇ej/-k̇ajʂej:

digit	noun form
30:	moʈlujmej
600:	sjajrʂowk̇ej
9000:	kakʰk̇ajʂej

• With the numeral root + lujmʂi/ʂowk̇ʂi/k̇ajʂəʂi in the plural number, NUM + -lujmʂij/-ʂowk̇ʂij/-k̇ajʂəʂij:

digit	noun form
30:	moʈlujmʂij
600:	sjajrʂowk̇ʂij
9000:	kakʰk̇ajʂəʂij

Numerals from 11 to 19 can be built:

• With the numeral root + the adjectival or nominal ending + lujmʂi, NUM + -i/-e + -lujmʂi

digit	noun form
11:	ṫjesilujmʂi / ṫjeselujmʂi

• With -lujme + the postposition nje, over, + the numeral root + the adjectival or nominal ending, lujme + nje + NUM + -i/-e:

digit	noun form
11:	lujmenjeṫjesi / lujmenjeṫjese

Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.

Composite numbers can be built:

• by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

1985	k̇ajʂe pəjtʂowk̇ej towʡlujmej ʂewṗe

• by linking them with the conjunction tʰe, and, in descending order:

1985	k̇ajʂe tʰe pəjtʂowk̇ej tʰe towʡlujmej tʰe ʂewṗe

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are be built with the numeral root + the comparative suffix -is + the adjectival ending -i, NUM + -is- + -i:

ṫjes- + -is- + -i- → ṫjesisi
one → first

The first 10 ordinal numerals are:

digit	noun form
1st:	ṫjesisi
2nd:	moʈisi
3rd:	pʰijnisi
4th:	sjajrisi
5th:	ʂewṗisi
6th:	kakʰisi
7th:	njuʂisi-
8th:	towʡisi
9th:	pəjtisi
10th:	lujmisi

For the ordinal numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands the comparative suffix -is- replaces the nominal or adjectival ending -e/-i.

digit	adjective form
11th:	ṫjesilujmʂisi / lujmenjeṫjesisi
12th:	moʈilujmʂisi / lujmenjemoʈisi
20th:	moʈlujmisi / moʈlujmʂisi
30th:	pʰijnlujmisi / pʰijnlujmʂisi
600th:	kakʰʂowk̇isi / kakʰʂowk̇ʂisi
9000th:	pəjtk̇ajʂisi / pəjtk̇ajʂəʂisi

If the numeral form is composite, the comparative ending is added to every form, and they agree with their adjoining noun in case and number:

• 378^th: pʰijnʂowk̇isi (tʰe) njuʂlujmisi (tʰe) towʡisi

Verbs

As already mentioned, the word root has a (C)VC structure. When taking an adjective role, the root is usually expanded by a set of verbal suffixes, which convey an aspectual information:

majr-, to see → 
 majr- + -o- → majro- to see (imperfective aspect)
 majr- + -u- → majru- to see (perfective aspect)
 majr- + -a- → majra- to see (resultative aspect)

As the basic form of verbs is regarded the imperfective form, marked by the suffix -o-. The verbal form generally distinguishes the following proper categories:

• aspect: imperfective, perfective, resultative.
• tense: aorist, present.
• person: first, second, third.
• number: singular, plural
• form: main, dependent.

Aspect is distinguished by aspectual suffixes, which expands the word root. The suffixes are:

• imperfective: -o-
• perfective: -u-
• resultative: -a-

The resultative root, especially when it is not derived or compound, displays an optional partial reduplication, following the patterns:

(s)C1V(j/w)C2- → C1V-(s)C1V(j/w)C2-
V(j/w)C1- → VC1V(j/w)C1-

Examples:

majr-, to see → 
   majr- + -a- → (ma)majra- to see (resultative aspect)

sk̇an-, to fight → 
   sk̇an- + -a- → (k̇a)sk̇ana- to fight (resultative aspect)

em-, to be able → 
   em- + -a- → (em)ema- to be able (resultative aspect)

Tense is distinguished by temporal suffixes, which are placed after the aspect suffixes. The suffixes are:

• aorist: -
• present: -w-

Example:

majr-, to see → 
   majr- + -o- + -w- → majrow- to see (imperfective present)

The person, referring to the clause subject, is distinguished by personal suffixes, which are placed after the aspect and temporal suffixes. The suffixes are:

1st	-m-
2nd	-t-
3rd	-k-
	-

Example:

majr-, to see → 
   majr- + -o- + -w- + -t- → majrowt- you are seeing (sing./plur. imperfective present)

The 3^rd person display two possible endings: -k-, which is derived from the demonstrative pronominal root, and -Ø-, namely a null ending. This dichotomy is due to the lacking of any necessary subject marking, when the subject itself is clearly expressed in the clause.

The number, referring to the clause subject, is distinguished by numeral suffixes, which are placed after the aspect, the temporal suffixes, and the personal suffixes. The suffixes are:

• singular: -
• plural: -ij- / -j-

The plural number display two possible endings: the former is used after a consonant, while the latter is used after a vowel.

Examples:

majr-, to see → 
   majr- + -o- + -w- + -t- + -ij- → majrowtij you are seeing (plural imperfective present)
   majr- + -o- + -w- + -ij- → majrowtij they are seeing (plural imperfective present)
   majr- + -o- + -j- → majroj they were seeing (plural imperfective aorist)

Person suffixes and number suffixes are usually merged to form the personal endings. The scheme of the personal endings in the pre-diasporic later period is:

1st sing.	-m
2nd sing.	-t
3rd sing.	-k
	-
1st plur.	-mij
2nd plur.	-tij
3rd plur.	-kij
	-j / -ij

The form is distinguished by the modal infixes, which are placed before the aspectual suffixes. The infixes are:

• main: -
• dependent: -əw-

Example:

majr-, to see → 
   majr- + -əw- + -o- + -w- + -t- + -ij- → majrəwowtij that you are seeing (plural dependent imperfective present)

There are, moreover, other endings which can build non-finite forms, but these are regarded as a derivative process and discussed in the relative chapter.

Verbal conjugation

Using the root majr-, meaning to see, vision, we give an example of the various aspectual, temporal, modal and person forms of the Proto-Alri verb.

	imperfective
	aorist		present
	main	dependent	main	dependent
1st sing.	majrom	majrəwom	majrowm	majrəwowm
2nd sing.	majrot	majrəwot	majrowt	majrəwowt
3rd sing.	majrok	majrəwok	majrowk	majrəwowk
	majro	majrəwo	majrow	majrəwow
1st plur.	majromij	majrəwomij	majrowmij	majrəwowmij
2nd plur.	majrotij	majrəwotij	majrowtij	majrəwowtij
3rd plur.	majrokij	majrəwowkij	majrowkij	majrəwokij
	majroj	majrəwoj	majrowij	majrəwowij

	perfective
	aorist		present
	main	dependent	main	dependent
1st sing.	majrum	majrəwum	majruwm	majrəwuwm
2nd sing.	majrut	majrəwot	majruwt	majrəwuwt
3rd sing.	majruk	majrəwuk	majruwk	majrəwowk
	majru	majrəwu	majruw	majrəwuw
1st plur.	majrumij	majrəwumij	majruwmij	majrəwuwmij
2nd plur.	majrutij	majrəwutij	majruwtij	majrəwuwtij
3rd plur.	majrukij	majrəwuwkij	majruwkij	majrəwukij
	majruj	majrəwuj	majruwij	majrəwuwij

	resultative
	aorist		present
	main	dependent	main	dependent
1st sing.	(ma)majram	(ma)majrəwam	(ma)majrawm	(ma)majrəwawm
2nd sing.	(ma)majrat	(ma)majrəwat	(ma)majrawt	(ma)majrəwawt
3rd sing.	(ma)majrak	(ma)majrəwak	(ma)majrawk	(ma)majrəwawk
	(ma)majra	(ma)majrəwa	(ma)majraw	(ma)majrəwaw
1st plur.	(ma)majramij	(ma)majrəwamij	(ma)majrawmij	(ma)majrəwawmij
2nd plur.	(ma)majratij	(ma)majrəwatij	(ma)majrawtij	(ma)majrəwawtij
3rd plur.	(ma)majrakij	(ma)majrəwawkij	(ma)majrawkij	(ma)majrəwakij
	(ma)majraj	(ma)majrəwaj	(ma)majrawij	(ma)majrəwawij

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative adverb re. This adverb is placed before the verb, usually after other non-verbal elements in the sentence.

laje ṫjowsow → laje re ṫjowsow
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn't sleeping

lajek̇ə ṫiʡe ʡawk̇u → lajek̇ə ṫiʡe re ʡawk̇u
the dog bit the man → the dog didn't bite the man

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative adverb.