Hoð‘i morphology

Main article: Hoð‘i

This page gives an extensive description of Hoð‘i morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in Hoð‘i can end either in a vowel or in a consonant in their basic form. Nouns ending in a consonant usually add a vowel in their declension. There is no clear tendency on which vowel is to be added and the vowel is deemed as part of the noun root.

Nouns display neither gender nor class distinction. There are, however, two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural, and a limited case system. If a noun is deemed as definite, a form of definite article is used and placed before it.

Cases

Hoð‘i nouns do decline, according to a nominative-accusative system with 2 cases:

Case	Meaning
Direct	This case marks both the subject and the direct object of a verb. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Oblique	This case marks primarily possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. Other functions are expressed by using prepositions.

Articles

There is only one article, the definite article, ek‘, which is placed before the noun, agreeing with it in case and number.

	singular	plural
direct	ek‘	ek‘i
oblique	evo	ivo

Noun declension

Nouns are declined in case and number with different models, depending on the last phoneme of the root.

Nouns, whose root ends in a consonant, are divided into two groups: non-palatal and palatal group. Both groups add a different thematic vowel in their declension. Nouns in the non-palatal group do also palatalize the last consonant of the root, if possible, in the plural forms.

	thematic vowel	plural form
non-palatal	-e-	-‘e
palatal	-i-	-i

There is, however, a certain amount of irregular nouns, like some nouns which seemingly belong to the palatal group, while declining like a non-palatal noun, and vice versa.

Nouns, whose root ends in a vowel, change this last vowel. The general vowel changes are:

a → æ
æ → ‘e	(The last consonant of the root undergo palatalization, if possible)
‘e → ‘i	(The last consonant of the root undergo palatalization, if possible)
i → ‘i	(The last consonant of the root undergo palatalization, if possible)
o → ow
ow → u
u → ow
y → u

Some nouns, conversely, display unpredictable irregularities in pluralization.

Nouns are also declined in case by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

direct	-
obliquo	-vo

Some examples of nouns, whose root ends in a consonant, are shown below: a noun belonging to the non-palatal group, towm, house, and a noun belonging to the palatal group, l‘irs‘, plant.

	towm		l‘irs‘
	singular	plural	singular	plural
direct	towm	towm‘e	l‘irs‘	l‘irs‘i
oblique	towmevo	towm‘evo	l‘irs‘ivo	l‘irs‘ivo

As it can be noticed, nouns in the palatal group do not distinguish the singular from the plural form in the oblique case.

Some examples of nouns, whose root ends in a consonant, are shown below: cæšæ, lake, and ðowmo, wheel.

	cæšæ		ðowmo
	singular	plural	singular	plural
direct	cæšæ	cæše	ðowmo	ðowmu
oblique	cæšævo	cæševo	ðowmovo	ðowmuvo

An example of irregular nouns is shown below: mɛw, mouse.

	mɛw
	singular	plural
direct	mɛw	m’ɛw
oblique	mɛwvo	m’ɛwvo

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, usually showing the same exceptions of nouns, but differing in their thematic vowel. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Both attributive and predicative adjectives are always placed after the nouns they specify, with a few exceptions.

ek‘ żen s‘em‘
the young man

ek‘ żen imo s‘em‘
the man is young

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.

ek‘ towm nyb‘ evo żenevo s‘em‘ivo jeso ða towmšævo kuh‘ivo
the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Adjectival declension follow the same rules as the nominal declension, with the same exceptions.

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings.

Examples: s‘em‘, young, and nyb‘, new, with two nouns, om, father, and towm, house.

	om s‘em‘
	singular	plural
direct	om s‘em‘	om‘e s‘em‘i
oblique	omevo s‘em‘ivo	om‘evo s‘em‘ivo

	towm nyb‘
	singular	plural
direct	towm nyb‘	towm‘e nyb‘i
oblique	towmevo nyb‘ivo	towm‘evo nyb‘ivo

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns feature a distinction between two forms for both cases.

For the direct case, the first form (named direct₁) is used as the subject of the clauses, for every kind of verbs. The second form (named direct₂) is used as the direct object of the clause, for transitive verbs, and with every preposition requiring the direct case.

Moreover, for the oblique case, the first form (named oblique₁) is used for most roles of the case, and with every preposition requiring the oblique case. The second form (named oblique₂) is used as the indirect object of the clause, without any preposition.

	1^st sing.	2^nd sing.	3^rd sing.	1^st plur.	2^nd plur.	3^rd plur.
direct₁	amex	k‘etex	okex	am‘ex	k‘et‘ex	ok‘ex
direct₂	am	k‘et	ok	am‘e	k‘et‘e	ok‘e
oblique₁	amevo	k‘etevo	okevo	am‘evo	k‘et‘evo	ok‘evo
oblique₂	amešo	k‘etešo	okešo	am‘ešo	k‘et‘ešo	ok‘ešo

There are, however, two possible forms for the second persons:

	2^nd sing.		2^nd plur.
	standard	obsolete	standard	obsolete
direct₁	k‘etex	itex	k‘et‘ex	it‘ex
direct₂	k‘et	it	k‘et‘e	it‘e
oblique₁	k‘etevo	itevo	k‘et‘evo	it‘evo
oblique₂	k‘etešo	itešo	k‘et‘ešo	it‘ešo

The alternative forms are regarded as obsolete and they are used in modern texts only in religious texts, in intentionally archaizing texts and in some set expressions. They may be also found in colloquial language, with a sense of solemnity or irony. It can be noticed that every speaker is well aware of these alternative forms, but their usage is steadily declining (except in some peripheral dialect, where their usage can be prevailing over the standard forms).

The forms for the oblique₂ case can be used alone, without any prepositions, conveying the meaning of the indirect object. When used alone, the forms for the direct and indirect object tend to be placed before the conjugated verb in the sentence. Their positioning after the verb is regarded as a marked position.

Examples:

amex ok men ož
I didn't see him

amex men ož ok
As for him, I didn't see him

Anyway, these pronouns are placed after the negative adverb ož.

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are forms on their own:

digit	full form
1:	he
2:	moš
3:	b‘in
4:	šæ
5:	ɔv
6:	kag
7:	ňow
8:	tuɣ
9:	p‘et
10:	lun

Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + -eňe + lun, with some irregularities:

digit	full form
11:	heňelun
12:	mošeňelun
13:	b‘ineňelun
14:	šæňelun
15:	ɔveňelun
16:	kageňelun
17:	ňowňelun
18:	tuɣeňelun
19:	p‘eteňelun

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are forms on their own:

digit	full form
100:	ux
1000:	x‘æ

The numerals for tens, hundreds and thousands are:

tens:	lum‘e
hundreds:	ux‘e
thousands:	x‘æ

The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + lum‘e / ux‘e / x’æ, with many irregularities:

	tens	hundreds	thousands
2x:	mošlum‘e	mošux‘e	mošx‘æ
3x:	b‘inlum‘e	b‘inux‘e	b‘inx‘æ
4x:	šælum‘e	šɔx‘e	šæx‘æ
5x:	ɔlum‘e	ɔvux‘e	ɔx‘æ
6x:	kaglum‘e	kox‘e	kax‘æ
7x:	ňulum‘e	ňux‘e	ňyx‘æ
8x:	tulum‘e	tux‘e	tux‘æ
9x:	p‘etlum‘e	p‘ux‘e	p‘ex‘æ

All cardinal numerals up to these forms are meant as invariable.

Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

1985: x‘æ p‘ux‘e tulum‘e ɔv

Numerals for “million” and “billion” are loanwords from modern Læntixu language:

digit	noun form
1,000,000:	šurentu (from L. šurentu)
1,000,000,000:	mešurentu (from L. mešurentu)

These forms are treated as regularly declinable nouns:

digit	noun form
3,000,000:	b‘in šurentow
6,000,000,000:	kag mešurentow

If these numerals are used as simple count forms, they are declined in the direct case. Inside of a structured sentence, they are declined according the case required by their syntactical role. Nouns adjoining such numerals are declined in the oblique case:

he šurentu ðiɣ‘evo
one million people

moš mešurentow ðiɣ‘evo
to two billions people

In the earlier modern period the idea of “zero” is introduced from modern Læntixu language. This numeral is however usually limited to mathematics:

digit	noun form
0:	xesu (from L. xesu)

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -i (-ir) to the cardinal numeral form. However, most ordinal forms are irregulary built. The first 10 ordinal numerals are:

digit	adjective form
1^st:	hi
2^nd:	moši
3^rd:	b‘ini
4^th:	šɛ
5^th:	ɔvi
6^th:	kagi
7^th:	ňy
8^th:	tuɣi
9^th:	p‘eti
10^th:	lumi

Ordinal numerals from 11^th to 19^th are built with the construction NUM + -eňe + lumi, with some irregularities:

digit	full form
11^th:	heňelumi
12^th:	mošeňelumi
13^th:	b‘ineňelumi
14^th:	šæňelumi
15^th:	ɔveňelumi
16^th:	kageňelumi
17^th:	ňowňelumi
18^th:	tuɣeňelumi
19^th:	p‘eteňelumi

The ordinal numerals for hundredth and thousandth are also irregularly formed:

digit	full form
100^th:	ux‘i
1000^th:	x‘æ

The ordinal numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + lum‘i / ux‘i / x’ɛ, with many irregularities:

	tenth	hundredth	thousandth
2x:	mošlum‘i	mošux‘i	mošx‘ɛ
3x:	b‘inlum‘i	b‘inux‘i	b‘inx‘ɛ
4x:	šælum‘i	šɔx‘i	šæx‘ɛ
5x:	ɔlum‘i	ɔvux‘i	ɔx‘ɛ
6x:	kaglum‘i	kox‘i	kax‘ɛ
7x:	ňulum‘i	ňux‘i	ňyx‘ɛ
8x:	tulum‘i	tux‘i	tux‘ɛ
9x:	p‘etlum‘i	p‘ux‘i	p‘ex‘ɛ

Ordinal numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are irregularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only adjectival word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000^th:	šurent’y
1,000,000,000^th:	mešurent’y
3,000,000,000^th:	b‘inmešurent’y

If the numeral form is composite, the comparative ending is added to every form, and they agree with their adjoining noun in case and number:

378^th: b’inux‘i ňulum‘i tuɣi

Verbs

The verbal system of Hoð‘i language displays the following features:

tense:
- simple tenses: present, past, perfect
- compound tenses: present continuous, past continuous, pluperfect, future, future continuous, anterior future, future perfect, future in the past
mood:
- definite moods: indicative, imperative
- indefinite moods: infinitive, active participle, passive participleù
diathesis: active, passive

The simple tenses are distinguished by a typical vowel, while compound tenses are formed with the verb imew, to be, as an auxiliary verb, and a participial form, or with the auxiliary verb tɔw, and an infinitival form.

The citation form of verbs is the present infinitive, marked by the ending -ew. From such form the verbal root can be inferred and can be changed in every other verbal form.

The following personal endings are then added to the root in the definite moods. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

	indicative	imperative
1^st sing.	-n
2^nd sing.	-	-to
3^rd sing.	-	-to
1^st plur.	-m‘i	-m‘ito
2^nd plur.	-v‘i	-v‘ito
3^rd plur.	-v‘i	-v‘ito

The second and the third person share the same ending in both numbers. Thus the subject pronouns is usually expressed in the second person, to avoid ambiguity. The third person pronoun is, conversely, usually not expressed and left implied:

k‘etex xowno
you sing

(okex) xowno
he/she sings

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms, however, they can be built on the various temporal forms.

The non-finite endings are:

infinitive: -ew
active participle: -ð‘i
passive participle: -ňə

Conjugation of regular verbs

Sample verb: xuvew, to hit.

Active diathesis

Indicative mood

Present tense

The present is a simple tense. The thematic vowel -u- (which changes into -o- in the 2^{nd and}3^rd singular persons) and the personal endings are added to the verbal roots:

1^st sing.	xuvun
2^nd sing.	xuvo
3^rd sing.	xuvo
1^st plur.	xuvum‘i
2^nd plur.	xuvuv‘i
3^rd plur.	xuvuv‘i

There are, however, a certain amount of irregular verbs in the present tense. These verbs usually add a different thematic vowel from -u-, or they display an alteration of the last vowel of the root, with possible palatalizing effect. As an example, the conjugation of the present tense of the verbs ňerow, to bring, and x‘ow, to give, of the is shown.

	ňerow	x‘ow
1^st sing.	ňerun	xown
2^nd sing.	ňero	xow
3^rd sing.	ňero	xow
1^st plur.	ňerum‘i	xowm‘i
2^nd plur.	ňeruv‘i	xowv‘i
3^rd plur.	ňeruv‘i	xowv‘i

Past tense

The past is a simple tense. The thematic vowel -y- and the personal endings are added to the verbal roots:

1^st sing.	xuvyn
2^nd sing.	xuvy
3^rd sing.	xuvy
1^st plur.	xuvym‘i
2^nd plur.	xuvyv‘i
3^rd plur.	xuvyv‘i

There are, however, a certain amount of irregular verbs in the past tense. These verbs usually add a different thematic vowel from -y-, or they display an alteration of the last vowel of the root, with possible palatalizing effect. As an example, the conjugation of the past tense of the verbs ňerow, to bring, and x‘ow, to give, of the is shown.

	ňerow	x‘ow
1^st sing.	ňerywn	xɔn
2^nd sing.	ňeryw	xɔ
3^rd sing.	ňeryw	xɔ
1^st plur.	ňerywm‘i	xɔm‘i
2^nd plur.	ňerywv‘i	xɔv‘i
3^rd plur.	ňerywv‘i	xɔv‘i

Perfect tense

The perfect is a simple tense. The thematic vowel -a- and the personal endings are added to the verbal roots:

1^st sing.	xuvan
2^nd sing.	xuva
3^rd sing.	xuva
1^st plur.	xuvam‘i
2^nd plur.	xuvav‘i
3^rd plur.	xuvav‘i

There are, however, a certain amount of irregular verbs in the perfect tense. These verbs usually add a different thematic vowel from -a-, or they display an alteration of the last vowel of the root, with possible palatalizing effect. As an example, the conjugation of the perfect tense of the verbs ňerow, to bring, and x‘ow, to give, of the is shown.

	ňerow	x‘ow
1^st sing.	ňerown	xawn
2^nd sing.	ňerow	xaw
3^rd sing.	ňerow	xaw
1^st plur.	ňerowm‘i	xawm‘i
2^nd plur.	ňerowv‘i	xawv‘i
3^rd plur.	ňerowv‘i	xawv‘i

Present continuous tense

The present continuous is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb imew, to be, and the active present participle of the conjugated verb, declined in number according to the clause subject:

1^st sing.	imun xuvoð‘i
2^nd sing.	imo xuvoð‘i
3^rd sing.	imo xuvoð‘i
1^st plur.	imum‘i xuvoð‘i
2^nd plur.	imuv‘i xuvoð‘i
3^rd plur.	imuv‘i xuvoð‘i

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

Past continuous tense

The past continuous is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative past forms of the verb imew, to be, and the active present participle of the conjugated verb, declined in number according to the clause subject:

1^st sing.	imyn xuvoð‘i
2^nd sing.	imy xuvoð‘i
3^rd sing.	imy xuvoð‘i
1^st plur.	imym‘i xuvoð‘i
2^nd plur.	imyv‘i xuvoð‘i
3^rd plur.	imyv‘i xuvoð‘i

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

Pluperfect tense

The pluperfect is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative perfect forms of the verb imew, to be, and the active past participle of the conjugated verb, declined in number according to the clause subject:

1^st sing.	iman xuvyð‘i
2^nd sing.	ima xuvyð‘i
3^rd sing.	ima xuvyð‘i
1^st plur.	imam‘i xuvyð‘i
2^nd plur.	imav‘i xuvyð‘i
3^rd plur.	imav‘i xuvyð‘i

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

Future tense

The future is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the auxiliary verb tɔw, and the present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

1^st sing.	town xuvew
2^nd sing.	tow xuvew
3^rd sing.	tow xuvew
1^st plur.	towm‘i xuvew
2^nd plur.	towv‘i xuvew
3^rd plur.	towv‘i xuvew

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

Anterior future tense

The anterior future is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative past forms of the auxiliary verb tɔw, and the present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

1^st sing.	t‘yn xuvew
2^nd sing.	t‘y xuvew
3^rd sing.	t‘y xuvew
1^st plur.	t‘ym‘i xuvew
2^nd plur.	t‘yv‘i xuvew
3^rd plur.	t‘yv‘i xuvew

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

Future perfect tense

The future perfect is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative perfect forms of the auxiliary verb tɔw, and the present infinitive of the conjugated verb:

1^st sing.	tæn xuvew
2^nd sing.	tæ xuvew
3^rd sing.	tæ xuvew
1^st plur.	tæm‘i xuvew
2^nd plur.	tæv‘i xuvew
3^rd plur.	tæv‘i xuvew

This tense is regarded as essentially regular.

Future continuous tense

The future continuous is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative future forms of the verb imew, to be, and the active present participle of the conjugated verb, declined in number according to the clause subject:

1^st sing.	town imew xuvoð‘i
2^nd sing.	tow imew xuvoð‘i
3^rd sing.	tow imew xuvoð‘i
1^st plur.	towm‘i imew xuvoð‘i
2^nd plur.	towv‘i imew xuvoð‘i
3^rd plur.	towv‘i imew xuvoð‘i

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

Future in the past tense

The future in the past is a compound tense. It is built with the indicative future forms of the verb imew, to be, and the active past participle of the conjugated verb, declined in number according to the clause subject:

1^st sing.	town imew xuvyð‘i
2^nd sing.	tow imew xuvyð‘i
3^rd sing.	tow imew xuvyð‘i
1^st plur.	towm‘i imew xuvyð‘i
2^nd plur.	towv‘i imew xuvyð‘i
3^rd plur.	towv‘i imew xuvyð‘i

This tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the participial formation.

Imperative mood

The imperative mood is used to convey commands and orders. It is mostly used in main clauses.

It displays only one tense, with specific personal endings. It has no forms for the 1^st singular person.

Present tense

The present is a simple tense. The thematic vowel -u- and the imperative personal endings are added to the verbal roots:

1^st sing.	-
2^nd sing.	xuvuto
3^rd sing.	xuvuto
1^st plur.	xuvum‘ito
2^nd plur.	xuvuv‘ito
3^rd plur.	xuvuv‘ito

The 2^nd and 3^rd persons display the same endings. The 3^rd persons pronouns are thus used to convey the subject, to avoid ambiguities. Conversely, 2^nd persons pronouns are usually left out:

(k’etex) xownuto!
(you) sing!

okex xownuto!
let him/her sing!

Non-finite forms

The non-finite verbal forms are:

Infinitive

The infinitive is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and it is not conjugated in person or number. It is marked by the ending -ew.

It displays three tenses, present, past, and perfect, formed through different endings:

present	past	perfect
xuvew	xuvow	xuvæw

There are, however, a certain amount of irregular verbs in the infinitive. These verbs usually add different endings, or they display an alteration of the last vowel of the root, with possible palatalizing effect. As an example, the conjugation of the infinitive of the verbs ňerow, to bring, and x‘ow, to give, of the is shown.

	present	past	perfect
ňerow	ňerow	ňeryw	ňeraw
x‘ow	x‘ow	x‘ɔ	x‘aw

Active participle

The active participle displays three tenses, present, past, and perfect, formed through the thematic vowels. It is marked by the ending -ð‘i:

present	past	perfect
xuvoð‘i	xuvyð‘i	xuvað‘i

The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action.

Each tense form of the active participle usually does not have distinctive singular and plural forms.

There are, however, a certain amount of irregular verbs in the active participle. These verbs usually add different endings, or they display an alteration of the last vowel of the root, with possible palatalizing effect. As an example, the conjugation of the active participle of the verbs ňerow, to bring, and x‘ow, to give, of the is shown.

	present	past	perfect
ňerow	ňerowð‘i	ňerywð‘i	ňerawð‘i
x‘ow	x‘owð‘i	x‘ɔð‘i	x‘awð‘i

Passive participle

The passive participle displays three tenses, present, past, and perfect, formed through the thematic vowels. It is marked by the ending -ňə:

present	past	perfect
xuvoňə	xuvyňə	xuvaňə

The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.

There are, however, a certain amount of irregular verbs in the passive participle. These verbs usually add different endings, or they display an alteration of the last vowel of the root, with possible palatalizing effect. As an example, the conjugation of the passive participle of the verbs ňerow, to bring, and x‘ow, to give, of the is shown.

	present	past	perfect
ňerow	ňerowňə	ňerywňə	ňerawňə
x‘ow	x‘owňə	x‘ɔňə	x‘awňə

Passive diathesis

The passive diathesis displays only compound forms, in every mood and tense. These forms are always built through the auxiliary verb imɔr, to be with the various forms of the passive participle, which always agrees with the clause subject in number.

The usage of the different moods and tenses is exactly the same as the active diathesis. However, the passive diathesis completely lacks any continuous tense, which are replaced by their non-continuous counterparts.

Indicative mood

Tense	Construction
present	indicative present forms of imew + present passive participle
past	indicative past forms of imew + present passive participle
perfect	indicative perfect forms of imew + present passive participle
pluperfect	indicative perfect forms of imew + past passive participle
future	indicative future forms of imew + present passive participle
anterior future	indicative anterior future forms of imew + present passive participle
future perfect	indicative future perfect forms of imew + present passive participle
future in the past	indicative future forms of imew + past passive participle

Examples (for each tense only the 1^st person singular form is shown):

Tense	Construction
present	imun xuvoňə, ...
past	imyn xuvoňə, ...
perfect	iman xuvoňə, ...
pluperfect	iman xuvyňə, ...
future	town imew xuvoňə, ...
anterior future	t‘yn imew xuvoňə, ...
future perfect	tæn imew xuvoňə, ...
future in the past	town imew xuvyňə, ...

Imperative mood

Tense	Construction
present	imperative present forms of imew + present passive participle

Examples (for each tense only the 2^nd person singular form is shown):

Tense	Example
present	imuto xuvoňə, ...

Infinitive mood

Tense	Construction
present	present infinitive of imew + present passive participle
past	past infinitive of imew + present passive participle
perfect	perfect infinitive of imew + present passive participle

Examples:

Tense	Construction
present	imew xuvoňə
past	imyw xuvoňə
perfect	imæw xuvoňə

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative adverb ož. This adverb is placed after the main verb.

ek‘ laž imo howð‘i → ek‘ laž imo howð‘i ož
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn't sleeping

ek‘ laž owxy ek‘ żen → ek‘ laž owxy ož ek‘ żen
the dog bit the man → the dog didn't bite the man

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative adverb.

Hoð‘i morphology

Nouns

Cases

Articles

Noun declension

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Personal pronouns

Numerals

Cardinal numerals

Ordinal numerals

Verbs

Conjugation of regular verbs

Active diathesis

Indicative mood

Present tense

Past tense

Perfect tense

Present continuous tense

Past continuous tense

Pluperfect tense

Future tense

Anterior future tense

Future perfect tense

Future continuous tense

Future in the past tense

Imperative mood

Present tense

Non-finite forms

Infinitive

Active participle

Passive participle

Passive diathesis

Indicative mood

Imperative mood

Infinitive mood

Negation

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