Gəjlnigo morphology
- Main article: Gəjlnigo
This page gives an extensive description of Gəjlnigo morphological features.
Nouns
Nouns in Gəjlnigo language end predominantly in a vowel. A certain amount of nouns, however, ends in a consonant, usually a palatalized one; these nouns tend to behave as irregular ones, but a euphonic vowel, mostly -i-, is generally added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.
Nouns display neither gender nor class distinction. There are, however, two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural, and a limited case system. If a noun is deemed as definite, a form of definite article is used and placed before it.
Cases
Gəjlnigo nouns do decline, according to a nominative-accusative system with 2 cases:
| Direct | This case marks both the subject and the direct object of a verb. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form. |
| Oblique | It has no specifical meaning and it is generally used only with prepositions. It can be occasionally used without prepositions, marking the indirect object. In earlier texts it can mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place) and, limited to proper nouns, possession and belonging. |
Articles
There is only one article, the definite article, ež, which is placed before the noun, agreeing with it in case and number.
| ež / ežd | ežno | |
| ežəre | ežnore |
In the singular direct case two forms of the article are listed. The choice between the two forms depends on the first phoneme of the following word:
- ež is placed before a word beginning with a consonant.
- ežd is placed before a word beginning with a vowel.
Examples:
ež pɔge čəjnnos the person is singing
ežd ɔne čəjnnos the woman is singing
The definite article, both in its singular and plural forms and in any case, can merge with some prepositions to form the so-called articled prepositions. Such forms will be analyzed in a following section.
Noun declension
Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:
| - | -no | |
| -re | -nure |
Some examples are shown below: bevvo, father, and hɔgo, house.
| bevvo | bevvono | hɔgo | hɔgono | |
| bevvore | bevvonore | hɔgore | hɔgonore | |
Nouns ending in a consonant in their base form, except for nouns ending in the semiconsonant -j, usually add a euphonic vowel before the endings of the other cases. This vowel is generally -i-, but other vowels are also possible.
dir. heǵ → obl. heǵire, ...
Some irregular nouns, however, change their last vowel in the root before adding other endings. The commonest change is o → u. A lot of these nouns display both irregular and regular forms, especially in earlier texts. In modern texts the amount of irregular forms is extremely limited, with a strong tendency towards regularization by analogy.
dir. heňo → obl. heňure, ...
A small amount of nouns, conversely, display unpredictable irregularities, both vocalic and consonantal, in the noun root.
dir. beĺ → obl. bejre, ...
Adjectives and pronouns
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, usually showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.
Adjectives
Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them of after the verb.
ež hɔva əjro the young man
ežd əjro hɔva the man is young
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings.
Declension of qualifying adjectives
Adjectival declension follow the same rules as the nominal declension, with the same exceptions.
Example: šɔrəj, big, with hɔgo, house
| šɔrəj hɔgo | šɔrəjno hɔgono | |
| šɔrəjre hɔgore | šɔrəjnure hɔgonure |
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns feature a distinction between two forms for the direct case. The first form (named direct1) is used as the subject of the clauses, for every kind of verbs. The second form (named direct2) is used as the direct object of the clause, for transitive verbs, and with every preposition requiring the direct case.
Moreover, the first two persons (1st and 2nd) have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension. On the other hand, the 3rdperson has only one root, displaying, however, a similar irregular declension.
| ɔddo | əjddo | ježlo | ɔdduno | əjdduno | ježluno | |
| ho | ne | ješ | huno | neno | ježno | |
| hore | nere | ježre | hunure | nenure | ježnure |
When used alone, the forms for the direct and indirect object tend to be placed before the conjugated verb in the sentence. Their positioning after the verb is regarded as a marked position.
Examples:
ɔddo ješ ejjužejdo əjs I didn't see him
ɔddo ejjužejdo əjs ješ As for him, I didn't see him
Anyway, these pronouns are placed after the negative adverbs.
Interrogative pronouns
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).
- what: he
- who: ša
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, only in the singular number.
šare əjddo egewgəjdo həjč? whom did you give water to?
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):
- hɔceh: where (static location)
- hɔhhe: where (motion toward)
- hɔžo: where... from (motion form)
- hɔko: why (cause)
- hečo: when
- heməjń: how much
- hehavčo/hejvčo: how
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:
- hego: which (inanimate)
- šago: which (animate)
- heməjń: how much / many
Within an interrogative clause, pronouns usually are usually moved at the beginning of the sentence. Their syntactical position is regarded as extremely marked.
heməjńino heǵino hejhih? how many sheep do you have?
In addition, like other parts of the sentences, they can be introduced by prepositions:
gɔ šare cegihug? whom is he talking about?
Numerals
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.
Cardinal numerals
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:
| šaw | |
| egəj | |
| məjgo | |
| gɔĺ | |
| haǵ | |
| tɔj | |
| heže | |
| čuj | |
| cɔǧo | |
| pejo |
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + ne + pejo, with some irregularities:
| šawnepejo | |
| egəjnepejo | |
| məjgonepejo | |
| gɔjnepejo | |
| haginepejo | |
| tɔjnepejo | |
| heženepejo | |
| čujnepejo | |
| cɔǧunepejo |
The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:
| ňacco | |
| iva |
The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + -pejdduno / -ňaccuno / -ivadduno. There is a certain number of irregularities. Moreover, the ending -ivadduno turns into -əjvadduno when added to a form ending with a -i and deletes this vowel, while it turns into -jvadduno when added to a form ending with any other vowel, not deleting it:
| egəjpejddɔw | egəjňaccuno | egivadduno | |
| məjgopejdduno | məjgoňaccuno | məjgojvadduno | |
| gɔjpejdduno | gɔjňaccuno | gɔjəjvadduno | |
| hagipejdduno | hagiňaccuno | hagəjvadduno | |
| tɔjpejdduno | tɔjňaccuno | tɔjivadduno | |
| hežepejdduno | hežeňaccuno | hežejvadduno | |
| čujpejdduno | čujňaccuno | čujəjvadduno | |
| cɔǧupejdduno | cɔǧuňaccuno | cɔǧujvadduno |
The numerals for “million” and “billion” are nominal forms on their own (the latter is an adapted loanword from Iðâɣ language):
| ivaw | |
| mejšurejntu (from I. mêšúrěntu) |
These forms are treated as regularly declinable nouns:
| məjgo ivawno | |
| tɔj mejšurejntuno |
If these numerals are used as simple count forms, they are declined in the direct case. Inside of a structured sentence, they are declined according the case required by their syntactical role. Nouns adjoining such numerals are introduced by the preposition čel and are declined in the oblique case:
gɔ egəj ivawnure čel pɔgenure to two millions people
Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:
- 1985: iva cɔǧoňaccuno čujpedduno haǵ
When cardinal numbers have an adjective-like function, or when they are used as as simple count forms, they are meant as indeclinable forms (except for "million" and "billion").
ež hɔgo čel ɔddužono məjgo maccudəjnure my three friends' house
šaw, egəj, məjgo, gɔĺ, ... one, two, three, four, ...
Every numeral, however, can also have a pronominal function. In this case, they are declined in the required case. They are declined only in the singular declension and they are generally used the article.
ež hɔgo čejžnore məjgore the house of those three (people)
There is, moreover, an additional pronoun-like irregular numeral, egivəj, meaning "both". It display a normal declension, only in the singular form, and it is never used with the any article. The verb agrees with this form in the plural number.
ež hɔgo čel egivəjre the house of both (of them)
egivəj ezehəjgəjduno they both walked out
In the earlier modern period the idea of “zero” is introduced from Cärähə language. This numeral is however usually limited to mathematics:
| hesju (from C. xesü) |
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -ro to the cardinal numeral form, with some irregularities:
| šawro | |
| egəjro | |
| məjgoro | |
| gɔjro | |
| hagiro | |
| tɔjro | |
| hežero | |
| čujro | |
| cɔǧuro | |
| pejuro | |
| šawnepejuro | |
| egəjnepejuro | |
| egəjpejddɔwro | |
| hagipejddunuro |
Ordinal numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only adjectival word:
| ivawro | |
| mejšurejnturo | |
| məjgomejšurejntunoro |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25th: egəjpejddɔw hagiro
Verbs
The verbal system of Gəjlnigo language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (Rimp) and the perfective root (Rprf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one by means of the prefix e-, known as augment:
Rimp → e(Rimp)prf
Example:
Rimp = gegug- → Rprf = egegug-
By adding the augment, irregular forms may arise:
Rimp = ləjuž- → Rprf = ejjuž-
A very limited amount of roots, conversely, derive their perfective roots by adding the suffix -ig:
Rimp = ɔkez- → Rprf = ɔkezig-
A threefold temporal distinction is also made, among present, past, and future tenses. In the present tense there is no aspectual distinction, being this tense built only on the imperfective root.
There are two verbal moods and two non-finite forms:
- Moods: indicative, conditional
- Non-finite: infinitive, participle
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -əjge, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:
- indicative: Ø
- conditional: -už- / -uš-
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots. The participle can also add the modal infixes before its typical ending.
The non-finite endings are:
- infinitive: -əjge
- participle: -uǵ
Both non-finite fors may display irregularities, with slightly different endings. Both endings can actually cause severe irregularities to arise.
A distinction between an active diathesis and a passive diathesis is made. However, the passive diathesis distinguishes an extremely reduced amount of forms.
Conjugation of a regular verb
Sample verb: mɔcedəjge, to pick up, to collect
Active diathesis
Indicative mood
Imperfective present tense
The imperfective present is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the imperfective root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
In the 3rd singular person, which features the null ending, irregularities may often occur, like altering the last root consonant:
ləjužəjge → ləjuš to see → he/she/it sees
kojrəjge → kojh to hear → he/she/it hears
Imperfective future tense
The imperfective future is a simple tense. The infix -əjgeh- and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
Perfective future tense
The perfective future is a simple tense. The infix -əjgeh- and the personal endings are added to the perfective root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the same perfective root.
Imperfective past tense
The imperfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). The suffix -əjdo- is added to the imperfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person), and their plural is built by adding the plural morpheme -no of the nominal/adjectival declension. The last vowel -o of the suffix changes in -u when the plural morpheme is added.
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.
Perfective past tense
The perfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). The suffix -əjdo- is added to the perfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person), and their plural is built by adding the plural morpheme -no of the nominal/adjectival declension. The last vowel -o of the suffix changes in -u when the plural morpheme is added.
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.
The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the same perfective root.
Conditional mood
The conditional mood is used to convey wish, desire, and probability. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses.
The conditional widely features the infix -už- (altered in -uš, when ending a word), which is placed between the root and the personal endings. Thus, other normal consonantal alteration anomalies in the indicative mood do not take place.
Imperfective present tense
The imperfective present is a simple tense. The infix -už-/-uš- and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
The conditional infix -už- is changed into -uš only in final word position in the 3rd singular person.
Imperfective future tense
The imperfective future is a simple tense. The infix -už-, the infix -əjgeh- and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
Perfective future tense
The perfective future is a simple tense. The infix -už-, the infix -əjgeh- and the personal endings are added to the perfective root:
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the same perfective root.
Imperfective past tense
The imperfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). The infix -už- and the suffix -əjdo- are added to the imperfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person), and their plural is built by adding the plural morpheme -no of the nominal/adjectival declension. The last vowel -o of the suffix changes in -u when the plural morpheme is added.
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.
Perfective past tense
The perfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). The infix -už- and the suffix -əjdo- are added to the perfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person), and their plural is built by adding the plural morpheme -no of the nominal/adjectival declension. The last vowel -o of the suffix changes in -u when the plural morpheme is added.
| 1st sing. | |
| 2nd sing. | |
| 3rd sing. | |
| 1st plur. | |
| 2nd plur. | |
| 3rd plur. |
As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.
The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the same perfective root.
Non-finite forms
The non-finite verbal forms are:
Infinitive
It is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and it is not conjugated in person or number. It has, however, an imperfective and a perfective form, respectively built on the imperfective root and on the perfective root. It is marked by the ending -əjge.
| imperfective | |
| perfective |
There are, however, a limited amount of verbs with irregular infinitive forms, where the infinitve ending merges with the root or is slightly altered.
petɔjge to fly
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb and it can be declined only in the singular number. It can also be introduced by a preposition. Its basic form is regarded as the direct case. It is not adjoined by the article when it has a verbal function, while the article can be used when the function of the infinitive is strictly nominal.
Participle
The participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It has a passive meaning and it is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. It is, thus, usually not used with intransitive verbs (with some of which it may take an impersonal value). In verbal conjugation, it agrees with the subject in number, while it agrees also in case with its adjoining noun, displaying thus a complete declension, in its adjectival role.
It has, however, an imperfective and a perfective form, respectively built on the imperfective root and on the perfective root. It may also take the modal infix -už-, diplaying thus a conditional form. It is marked by the ending -uǵ (whose plural form is -ugi). This ending very often causes irregularities, such as the lenghtening of the last root consonant or its alteration (the conditional infix undergoes no alteration).
| imperfective | ||
| perfective |
Besides its verbal or adjectival role, in some cases the participle may be used as noun, if preceded by the article.
ež emɔcedduǵ the harvest
Passive diathesis and impersonal form
The passive diathesis displays a far lesser amount of forms than the active diathesis. It is formed with the participle, which distinguished only the verbal aspect and the number of the clause subject.
- The imperfective form of the participle is used to convey an ongoing action, mainly in the present or in the future.
- The perfective form of the participle is used to convey a completed and finished action, mainly in the past.
Examples:
ež hunno həjšeččuǵ the field is/will be cultivated
ežno hunnono ežəjšeččugino the fields were cultivated
Intransitive verbs do not have a proper passive diathesis, but they may have a participial form. This form is used with an impersonal value, instead of a passive one.
hišegguǵ one falls, people fall
The impersonal form is mostly used in the singular number, but it may be found also in the plural, with a kind of collective meaning.
Negation
The verbal negation is conveyed by two negative adverbs:
- əjs
- əjň
Despite being essentially synonyms, these two adverbs have strictly different grammatical and syntactical usages.
- əjs in used in main clauses, with either indicative or conditional verbal forms.
- əjň in used mostly in dependent clauses, with any verbal forms. It is also used in main clauses in all imperative constructions.
Usage of both adverbs can display exception, which are specifically analysed in the syntactical chapter.
Both negative adverbs placed after the conjugated verbal form, namely after either the main verb, an auxiliary, or a modal verb, but before other unconjugated verbal forms.
ež huve čejun → ež huve čejun əjs the dog is sleeping → the dog isn't sleeping
ež huve pegis čejunəjge → ež huve pegis əjs čejunəjge the dog can sleep → the dog cannot sleep
ɔddo pacco hedduk ež huve čejun → ɔddo pacco hedduk ež huve čejun əjň I'm sad because the dog is sleeping → I'm sad because the dog isn't sleeping
In texts of the earlier period, conversely, the negative adverbs can be firmly placed at the end of the clause. This placement can be still found in modern text when imititating an archaic or extremely formal language.
Double negatives are generally allowed, and often used.
