Modern Figo morphology
- Main article: Modern Figo
This page gives an extensive description of modern Figo morphological features.
Nouns
Nouns in modern Figo can end either in a vowel or in a consonant in their basic form. A certain number of nouns ending in a vowel, however, can add a suppletive syllable before the normal declension endings, especially monosyllabic nouns. Nouns ending in a consonant usually add a euphonic vowel in their declension.
Nouns display neither gender nor class distinction. There are, however, two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural, and a limited case system.
Cases
Modern Figo nouns do decline, according to a nominative-accusative system with 3 cases:
| Nominative | This case marks the subject of a verb. It is regarded as the citation form of the noun. |
| Accusative | This case marks the direct object of a verb. It is also used with some postpositions. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form. |
| Oblique | It has no specifical meaning and it is generally used only with postpositions. It can be occasionally used without postpositions in earlier texts and in crystallized forms, marking possession and belonging. |
Noun declension
Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:
| -r | -rĩ | |
| - | - ̃ | |
| -š | -šũ |
An example is shown below: sobar, dog.
| sobar | sobarĩ | |
| soba | sobã | |
| sobaš | sobašũ | |
As it can be noticed, the plural form of the accusative case always involves nasalization of the last vowel. This process may happen on every available vowel, but, if the last vowel is already nasal in the singular, the plural accusative form will be identical to its singular counterpart.
Nouns ending in a consonant in the singular direct case usually add a euphonic vowel before the endings of the other cases. There is no tendency on a specific euphonic vowel.
An example is shown below: rimər, world, earth.
| rimər | rimərĩ | |
| rim | rimə̃ | |
| riməš | riməšũ | |
In this case, the added vowel is -ə-, which is regularly nasalized in the accusative plural form. Every euphonic vowel is always shown in the citation form, the singular nominative case.
The vowels -ə-, -i- or -u- are often dropped in the accusative singular, when present before the nominative singular ending.
Some irregular nouns, whose base form ends in a vowel, can add an entire syllable before the case endings.
An example is shown below: swõnur, house.
| swõnur | swõnurĩ | |
| swõ | swõnũ | |
| swõnuš | swõnušũ | |
The irregularly added syllable is more than often -nə-, -ne-, -ni- or -no-. If the last vowel of the base form is nasalized, it can sometimes lose nasalization in the forms with the added syllable. This forms are regarded as irregular and, in earlier texts, they can display many alternatives: for example the word swõnur has earlier alternatives like accusative plural swonũ or oblique plural swõnošũ, already fallen out of use in modern texts.
Some nouns, whose roots end in a consonant cluster, can insert an euphonic vowel -ə- between these consonants in the accusative singular form.
An example is shown below: moɣžur, herd.
| moɣžur | moɣžurĩ | |
| moɣəž | moɣžũ | |
| moɣžuš | moɣžušũ | |
The euphonic vowel is added only when the consonant cluster is unacceptable in final position according to phonotactical rules. When the consonant cluster is acceptable, no vowel is inserted.
A small amount of nouns display irregular plural endings:
| -ir | |
| -i | |
| -iš |
This endings usually trigger irregular consonantal and vocalic changes in the noun root (often due to methaponic processes).
An example is shown below: roɣur, eye.
| roɣur | ruɣir | |
| rog | ruɣi | |
| roɣuš | ruɣiš | |
From the previous example it can be noticed that nouns, whose nominative singular form ends in -ɣur, usually display an accusative singular form ending in -g.
Some nouns, conversely, display unpredictable irregularities, both vocalic and consonantal, in the noun root.
An example is shown below: rəjr, thing.
| rəjr | rəjrĩ | |
| ri | rĩ | |
| rəjš | rəjšũ | |
As noun declension often displays multiple irregularities, in the vocabulary section the accusative singular form is always cited for an irregular noun, while the accusative plural form is cited only when necessary:
- swõnur, n. (swõ), house.
- roɣur, n. (rog, ruɣi), eye.
Adjectives and pronouns
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, usually showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.
Adjectives
Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.
wobar řirur (the) young man
řirur wobar wẽh (the) man is young
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings.
Declension of qualifying adjectives
Adjectival declension follow the same rules as the nominal declension, with the same exceptions.
Example: šurir, big, with swõnur, house
| šurir swõnur | šurirĩ swõnurĩ | |
| šur swõ | šurĩ swõnũ | |
| šuriš swõnuš | šurišũ swõnušũ |
No adjective displays an irregular declension with a -i- plural.
Numerals
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.
Cardinal numerals
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:
| šwov | |
| ug | |
| miɣwo | |
| nwoh | |
| šwõ | |
| fwa | |
| hoše | |
| fu | |
| čwi | |
| fjev |
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fjev, with some irregularities:
| šwofjev | |
| uɣifjev | |
| miɣwofjev | |
| nwofjev | |
| šwõfjev | |
| fwafjev | |
| hošefjev | |
| fufjev | |
| čwifjev |
The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:
| ňwož | |
| řa |
The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fjewdũ / ňwoždũ / řadũ, with some irregularities:
| uɣifjewdəj | uɣiňwoždũ | uɣiřadũ | |
| miɣwofjewdũ | miɣwoňwoždũ | miɣwořadũ | |
| nwofjewdũ | nwoňwoždũ | nwořadũ | |
| šwõfjewdũ | šwõňwoždũ | šwõřadũ | |
| fwafjewdũ | fwaňwoždũ | fwařadũ | |
| hošefjewdũ | hošeňwoždũ | hošeřadũ | |
| fufjewdũ | fuňwoždũ | fuřadũ | |
| čwifjewdũ | čwiňwoždũ | čwiřadũ |
Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:
- 1985: řa čwiňwoždũ fufjewdũ šwõ
All cardinal numerals up to these forms are meant as invariable.
Numerals for “million” and “billion” are loanwords from other languages:
| čãčãr (from β. ʈʂʼamʈʂʼam) | |
| mešurentur (from I. mêšúrěntu) |
These forms are treated as regularly declinable nouns:
| miɣwo čãčãrĩ | |
| fwa mešurenturĩ |
If these numerals are used as simple count forms, they are declined in the nominative case. Inside of a structured sentence, they are declined according the case required by their syntactical role. Nouns adjoining such numerals are declined in the oblique case:
šwov čãčãr fožašũ one million people
kwov ug mešurentušu fožašũ to two billions people
In the earlier modern period the idea of “zero” is introduced from Iðâɣ language. This numeral is however usually limited to mathematics:
| xesu (from I. xesú) |
Pronominal numerals
Every cardinal number may display, moreover, a special pronominal form. This form is to be used strictly when referring to human beings. This numerals are built by adding the derivative ending -for to the cardinal numeral form, with some irregularities:
| - | |
| uɣifor | |
| miɣwofor | |
| nufor | |
| šwõfor | |
| fwafor | |
| hošefor | |
| fufor | |
| čwifor | |
| fjewfor | |
| šwofjewfor | |
| uɣifjewfor | |
| uɣifjewdəjfor | |
| fwafjewdũfor |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: uɣifjedəj šwõfor
Pronominal numerals can be formed from every cardinal numeral, except for the numeral "one", "million" and "billion" and the multiples of the latter two ones.
These forms decline only in singular number. They, however, display a complete singular declension. If present, the verb always agrees with the personal numeral in the singular number.
miɣwofo řirušjidũ jẽnõ we saw three (of them)
miɣwofor õt řirušjid jẽh three (of them) saw us
The pronominal forms, however, can be adjoined by a noun. This is built with a peculiar construction. The personal numerals are declined in the singular, while the adjoining nouns are always declined in the oblique plural form. If present, the verb always agrees with the personal numeral in the singular number.
miɣwofo řirušũ řirušjidũ jẽnõ we saw three men
miɣwofor řirušũ õt řirušjid jẽh three men saw us
The pronominal forms tend to be placed before the adjoining nouns. In colloquial language and in some texts, the adjoining noun can be placed before the pronominal numeral.
řirušũ miɣwofor õt řirušjid jẽh three men saw us
This placement, albeit spreading in some dialects, is not accepted in formal language and widely deprecated by grammarians.
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -dur (-d) to the cardinal numeral form, with an irregular suppletive form and some other irregularities:
| rošdur (rošd) | |
| uɣidur (uɣid) | |
| miɣwodur (miɣwod) | |
| nudur (nud) | |
| šwõdur (šwõd) | |
| fwadur (fwad) | |
| hošedur (hošed) | |
| fudur (fud) | |
| čwidur (čwid) | |
| fjewdur (fjewd) | |
| šwofjewdur (šwofjewd) | |
| uɣifjewdur (uɣifjewd) | |
| uɣifjewdəjdur (uɣifjewdəjd) | |
| fwafjewdũdur (fwafjewdũd) |
Ordinal numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only adjectival word:
| čãčãdur (čãčãd) | |
| mešurentudur (mešurentud) | |
| miɣwomešurentudur (mešurentud) |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25th: uɣifjedəj šwõdur
Fractional numerals
Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -nor to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numeral zero, one, an irregular suppletive form, and some irregularities:
| - | |
| fofur (fof) | |
| miɣwonor | |
| nunor | |
| šwõnor | |
| fwanor | |
| hošenor | |
| funor | |
| čwinor | |
| fjewnor | |
| šwofjewnor | |
| uɣifjewnor | |
| uɣifjewdəjnor | |
| fwafjewdũnor |
Fractional numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:
| čãčãnor | |
| mešurentunor | |
| miɣwomešurentunor |
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:
- 25: uɣifjedəj šwõnor
Verbs
The verbal system of moder Figo language is based on the combined use of a participial form with an auxiliary or modal verb, in order to build the different verbal tenses or moods. Only the auxiliary and modal verbs have a proper conjugation, while every other verb is conjugated through its participial forms.
The verbal system displays the following features:
- tense: present, imperfect, past, pluperfect, future, anterior future, future in the past
- mood: indicative, subjunctive, conditional
- participle: active, passive
- diathesis: active, passive
There is, moreover, an additional extratemporal and extramodal form, known as resultative, built with a special resultative participle.
Only in the indicative mood verbs can express all tenses. In other moods only a part of the tenses are expressed.
The citation form of verbs is the present active participle, marked by the ending -jid. As much as the verbal root can be usually inferred from this form, this is not always possible. The verbal root usually has a CVCVC structure.
The verb agrees with the clause subject in person and expresses two numbers, singular and plural.
Participles
There are three participial forms, the active participle, the passive participle, and the resultative participle. Only the passive participle can be additionally used with an adjectival function, while the active and the resultative participle are used only in the verbal conjugation
The active participle and the passive participle have a present form and a past form, being the latter usually derived from the former. Past participle are thus formed in different ways:
- Most disyllabic verbal roots derive their past root from the present one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:
CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C
- A limited subgroup of disyllabic roots adds the prefix a-, as well as the vowel switching. By adding this prefix, irregularities may arise.
CV1CV2C → aCV2CV1C
- In some dialectal forms, the prefix e- can be found in the past root of some verbs. This forms are regarded as obsolete in most dialects and in the standard language. It originates from the metaphonic effect on the original prefix, which has been restored to its original form since long by analogy.
- Multisyllabic verbal roots are usually formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root.
CV3CV1CV2C → CV3CV2CV1C
CV1CV2CV3C → CV2CV1CV3C
CV3CV1CV2CV4C → CV3CV2CV1CV4C
- A significant part of multisyllabic and also disyllabic verbs derive their past root from the present one by adding the suffix -aɣ-.
CV3CV1CV2C → CV3CV1CV2Caɣ
- Monosyllabic verbal roots and the modal verbs are usually regarded as irregular and they can took on each one of the previous strategies.
The participle endings are:
- active participle: -jid (pl. -jidũ)
- passive participle: -ug (pl. -uɣĩ)
- resultative participle: -aža
The -jid ending often causes palatalization of the preceding consonants, being shortened to -id:
fin- + -jid → fiňid to come
This ending may cause, when added to the root, several vowel irregularities. Thus, it is often difficult to recognize the past root from the citation form, and, consequently, in dictionaries the past form is always cited together with the present verbal root.
šwodiǧid (šeduǧid, šwodeɣ-) to govern
Moreover, the suffix -aɣ always changes when the ending -jid is added:
-aɣ- + -jid → -eǧid
This vowel irregularites are due to the metaphony process, which causes the following effects on the vowels preceding the ending:
- a → e / ji, ã → ẽ / jĩ
- e → i, ẽ → ĩ
- o → u, õ → ũ
- wo → u, wõ → ũ
This process, conversely, does not affect neologisms and modern loanwords.
The passive participle ending, -ug-, does not noticeably affect the root and it usually does not cause peculiar irregularities.
Both participial forms always agree with the clause subject in number, when used in the verbal conjugation.
The resultative participle ending, -aža-, does not noticeably affect the root and it usually does not cause peculiar irregularities. It is generally added to the past form of the verbal root, resulting often in from which are substantially different from the citation form. It lacks different temporal forms, being thus deemed as an indeclinable form.
Example of a verb with many irregularities, fušid, to put, to place:
| present | ||||
| past | ||||
| present | ||||
| past | ||||
| resultative | ||||
Conjugation of auxiliary verbs and modal verbs
Auxiliary verbs and modal verbs are the only verbs which display a proper conjugation, usually an irregular one, with different forms for every person. Moreover, each form has a negative counterpart.
The auxiliary verbs are:
- wĩňid, to be
- mid, to go
Conjugation of irregular forms of wĩňid:
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
Conjugation of irregular forms of mid:
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
The modal verbs are:
- fĩšid, to can, to be able
- nužid, to want
- juřid, to must, to have to
Conjugation of irregular forms of fĩšid:
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
As it can be easily noticed, all negative forms in the conditional mood of the verb fĩšid are the same as the negative forms of the indicative mood.
Conjugation of irregular forms of nužid:
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
Conjugation of irregular forms of juřid:
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
| 1st sing. | ||||
| 2nd sing. | ||||
| 3rd sing. | ||||
| 1st plur. | ||||
| 2nd plur. | ||||
| 3rd plur. | ||||
Other tenses of these verbs are regularly gonjugated. Negative forms are regared as intrinsically negated verbal forms:
řirur wobar wẽh → řirur wobar wĩs the man is young → the man is not young
