Biwdiw syntax
- Main article: Biwdiw
This page gives an extensive description of Biwdiw syntactical features.
Main clause and word order
Biwdiw is a mainly SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) language, but there are clear traces hinting to a previous underlying SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) order.
wīruliw līlušɛc subɛ the man sees the dog
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. SVO order is essentially used in the main clause. Other orders with a clear role and a frequent usage in the main clause are:
- VSO (Verb-Subject-Object), which marks interrogative clauses, namely simple questions.
līlušɛc wīruliw subɛ does the man see the dog?
- OVS (Object-Verb-Subject), which marks the so-called passive construct.
subɛ līluš wīruliw the dog is seen by the man
- VOS (Verb-Object-Subject), which marks the passive construct in a interrogative clause.
līluš subɛ wīruliw is the dog seen by the man?
When another verb is found inside a main clause, it is placed in the final position of the sentence. Both possible verbal positions are called primary verbal position and secondary verbal position.
SV1O(C)V2
Modal verbs, the auxiliary verb çɛňiwgɛ, to be, and the negative verb hīsiwgɛ, to do not, tend to be placed in the primary position, and cause the supported verb to move in the secondary position.
wīruliw hīsjɛc(V1) subɛšu līlušiwgɛ(V2) the man does not see the dog
wīruliw çɛňɛc(V1) subɛšu līlušiwgɛ(V2) the man will (repeatedly) see the dog
wīruliw pjɛgisjɛc(V1) subɛšu līlušiwňiwgɛ(V2) the man can see the dog
When another verb is placed in the primary position, the previous verbal form is moved in the end of the secondary position.
wīruliw çɛňɛc(V1) subɛšu līlušiwgɛ(V2) → wīruliw hīsjɛc(V1) subɛšu līlušiwgɛ çɛňiwgɛ(V2) the man will (repeatedly) see the dog → the man will not (repeatedly) see the dog
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “place-manner-cause-time”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed before the direct object of the sentence.
A peculiar feature is the verbal infinitival agreement: when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ablative case.
hīsū subɛšu līlušiwgɛ I do not see the dog
Nouns
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying possession and belonging are always placed before the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.
wīrurɛ sōgu the man’s house
ūdjušu liwlā my hand
çōbā hōnɛ the young woman
However, especially in texts from the later period, specifying forms in the ablative case can also be placed after the noun.
liwlāhiw wīrušu the hands of the man
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called nominal agreement.
Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.
çōbāliw wīruliw hiwmēx sōguxjɛ the young man is going home
ūdjunurɛ sōgu our house
çōbāhiw hōnɛhiw the two young women
hōnɛnu çɛňun çōbānu the women are young
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by prepositions, which are placed before the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be introduced by a preposition.
cɛgiʎugū gū sōguxjɛ I am talking about the house
