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= introduction ['''soka'''] =


This is the grammar of Kala. A personal constructed language based on aesthetic preferences and a desire to understand more deeply the linguistic and cognitive process. The name of the language is taken from the Arabic verb [''takallama''] meaning “to talk, to have a discussion or conversation”. This description of Kala is meant to be simultaneously simple and thorough as to engage the linguistically inclined yet be accessible to those less so. There are three basic parts of speech in Kala: noun, verb, and particle.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext


== borrowing ['''kasu'''] ==
= Heading 1 =


Kala borrows from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}.
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation.
* {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation.


* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [''takallama'']
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.
* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [''ʾanā'']
* '''pato''' – ''duck'' (Anatidae); from Spanish [''pato'']
* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [''chéng'']
* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [''wasichu'']
* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [''myöntää'']
* '''a''' – '''to be, exist, yes'''; from Japanese [''aru'']


= phonology ['''oto'''] =
== Heading 2 ==
=== Heading 3 ===
==== Heading 4 ====


The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized plosives is influenced by Bantu languages.
<nowiki>


== vowels ['''musa'''] ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}


{| class="wikitable"
words
 
{{col-break}}
 
ety
 
{{col-break}}
 
abbs
 
{{col-end}}
 
</nowiki>
 
===== Heading 5 =====
====== Heading 6 ======
 
 
: = indentation
 
* Item1
* Item4
** Sub-item 4 a)
*** Sub-item 4 a) 1.
**** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
** Sub-item 4 b)
* Item5
 
# Item1
# Item4
## Sub-item 1
### Sub-sub-item
#### Sub-sub-sub-item
## Sub-item 2
# Item5
 
; Term : Definition1
 
; Term
: Definition1
: Definition2
: Definition3
 
To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.
 
Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''.
 
Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''.
 
'''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line.
 
For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}.
 
 
* [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]]
 
* [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]]
 
= old / wrong =
 
'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
 
'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
 
Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects.
[n] and [l] are in free variation.
[ɲ] is an allophone of /n/.
/x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.
 
 
 
=== writing ===
 
[[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]
 
 
 
[[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]
 
== allophony ==
The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
 
= Syntax =
 
 
* '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
* '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
 
= Nouns =
 
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
 
== pronouns ==
 
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
!
! singular
! plural
! possessive
|-align=center
! 1st person
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
|-align=center
! 2nd person
| '''ni'''<br>you
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
|-align=center
! 3rd person
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
|}
 
* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
 
* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
 
= Verbs =
 
Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.
 
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
* '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])
 
== tense, aspect, and mood ==
 
Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|-−
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
|-
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
|-
|-
!
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
![[WP:Front vowel|Front]]
|-
![[WP:Central vowel|Central]]
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
![[WP:Back vowel|Back]]
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
![[WP:Close vowel|Close]]
|'''i''' || || '''u'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[WP:Mid vowel|Mid]]
|'''e''' || || '''o'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[WP:Open vowel|Open]]
| || '''a''' ||
|}
|}
Kala has five vowels {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}.  Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈʧũŋka] ('bug').


=== diphthongs ===
* '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''


Both of the falling diphthongs, '''ai''' [a͜ɪ] and '''ao''' [a͜ʊ], as well as '''uai''' [ʷ~wa͜ɪ] and '''yao''' [ʲ~ja͜ʊ] only occur word finally, and very infrequently.
* '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''


== consonants ['''hapu'''] ==
== positional verbs ==


Where "~" appears, it indicates [[WP:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.


* Nasals: '''m''' – /m/, '''n''' – /n/, '''ny''' – /ɲ/
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
* Plosives: '''p''' – /p~b/, '''t''' – /t~d/, '''k''' – /k~g/, '''‘''' /ʔ/
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
* Affricates: '''ts''' – /t͡s~t͡ʃ/, '''tl''' – /t͡l~ t͡ɬ/
* Continuants: '''s''' – /s~ʃ/, '''h''' – /h~ɦ/, '''l''' – /l~r/
* Semivowels: '''u''' – /w/, '''y''' – /j/


=== labialization ===
= Particles =


Labialized consonants: /pʷ/, /kʷ/, /mʷ/, /nʷ/, /sʷ/, /hʷ/, /t͡ʃʷ/
== determiners ==


=== nasalization ===
Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.


Prenasalized plosives: /ᵐp~ᵐb/, /ⁿt~ⁿd/, /ᵑk~ᵑ/
=== deixis ===


=== palatalization ===
* '''pu''' - this; these
* '''su''' - that; those


Palatalized consonants: /pʲ/, /kʲ/, /mʲ/, /hʲ/
=== amount ===


== stress ==
* '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
* '''kula''' - all; every; each
* '''ne''' - no; none; zero
* '''poka''' - some; several; a few
::
* '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
* '''maso''' - more


== allophones ['''tonua'''] ==
=== other-ness ===


The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Kala allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /ts/ as [dz] or [tʃ] as well as [ts],  /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.
* '''asi''' - such
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
* '''oto''' - other
* '''tonye''' - same


== phonotactics ['''oto'u'''] ==
= Number =


Kala has a fairly simple phonological system. It allows only syllables with maximally one initial and one final consonant. Consonant clusters only occur word-medially and over syllable boundaries, with the exception of prenasalized plosive which can start a word.


=== syllable structure ===
When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.


= word order ['''tsukimila'''] =
* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
: ''She had two houses.''


The only strict rule of word order is that the verb must be placed at the end of a sentence (possibly followed by sentence-end particles). This is because Kala sentence elements tend to be marked with particles that identify their grammatical functions. Kala is a subject-object-verb (SOV) language (e.g., '''mikelo amenyatla onyo''' “Michael German studies”). In Kala, verbs and adjectives appear at the end of the sentence. All other elements such as nouns (e.g., subject and/or object), adverbs, and numbers, appear before verbs and/or adjectives. In addition, modifiers (e.g., adverbs, demonstratives, and relative clauses) appear before the modified words.
* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
: ''I see four men.''


For instance, let us consider the following English sentence: “Michael studies history at the library in the afternoon.” We know that “Peter” is the subject since it comes before the verb “studies,” and “history” is the object as it appears after the verb. Notice that extra elements such as “at the library” and “in the afternoon” are placed after the object. In addition, English prepositions always appear before nouns, as in “at the library.” However, the word order of Kala would be '''mikelo mosamohue ke saha onyo''' “Michael library-at history studies.”
== Higher Numbers ==


Consider another example:
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
'''mikelo tsakahue ke katsoyotso ina''' - “Michael eats lunch at home”
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five


The locative suffix -'''hue''' marks '''tsaka''' (home) as the location. In addition, the object particle '''ke''' marks '''katsoyotso''' (lunch) as the object of the sentence.


== context ==


In Kala the most important elements tend to cluster to the end of the sentence. The further the word is from the end of the sentence, the less important the element is and more likely it is to be dropped. In other words, what appears at the very end of the sentence (e.g., verbs) is most important. Consequently, Kala sentences that have no subject or object but just a verb or an adjective, such as in '''ina''' “eat,” are grammatically correct and natural in conversation.
__NOTOC__


Here are more examples:
* '''to ka''' - “How are you?” - <small>manner Q</small>
* '''onyo ka''' - “What do you study?” - <small>study Q</small>
* '''nyasa''' - “Thank you” - <small>thank</small>


Notice that none of the above expressions contains the first or second person pronoun. What determines the omission is the context. Kala is a context-oriented language in that any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless they are indispensable.


= root words =
<center>
[[#ka|ka]] [[#sa|sa]] [[#ta|ta]] [[#na|na]] [[#pa|pa]] [[#ma|ma]] [[#ya|ya]] [[#la|la]] [[#wa|wa]] [[#a|a i u e o]]
</center>


== suffixes ==
= ka =


=== dependent suffixes ===
* '''kisa''' /ˈki.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]
: ''part'' - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]


==== nominal ====
* '''kute''' /ˈku.te/ from FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]]
: ''v'' - listen; hear


==== verbal ====
* '''kono''' /ˈko.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]
: ''n'' - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
: ''v'' - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize


==== derivational ====
* '''kome''' /ˈko.me/ from SPA [[wiktionary:comer#Spanish|comer]]
: ''v'' - eat; consume; drink


==== multifunction ====
= sa =


=== independent suffixes ===
* '''sa''' /sa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]
: ''part'' - future tense particle [FUT]


= particles =
* '''saka/na''' /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]]
: ''v'' - be hot; be warm; burn
: ''n'' - heat; warmth / fire


== object ==


== vocative ==
* '''sana''' /ˈsa.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]]
: ''n'' - year; 365 days


== interrogative ==
* '''sapa''' /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]]
: ''n'' - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive


= nouns =
* '''salama''' /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سلم#Arabic|سلم]]
: ''n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
: ''v'' - be peaceful; be calm
: ''intj'' - Peace! Hey! Hi!


=== plural ===
* '''sawa''' /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]]
: ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
: ''v'' - marry


==== quantity ====
* '''si''' /si/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:四#Definitions|四]]
: ''num'' - four; 4


=== gender ===
* '''siya''' /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:下#Definitions|下]]
: ''prep'' - below; under; beneath
: ''v'' - be under; be lower


== pronouns ==
* '''su''' /su/ from TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]
: ''part'' - that; those (over there)
 
* '''sunya''' /ˈsun.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]]
: ''num'' - zero; 0
: ''n'' - nothing
: ''v'' - be empty; be void
 
* '''se''' /se/ from SPA [[wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]]
: ''pro'' - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
 
* '''sosa''' /ˈso.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:salsa#Spanish|salsa]]
: ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing
 
= ta =
 
* '''tanka''' /ˈtaŋ.ka/ from ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke#German|danke]]
: ''v'' - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
: ''part/intj'' - thank you; thanks
 
* '''tapo''' /ˈta.po/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]]
: ''v'' - damage; wreck; break; destroy
: ''n'' - destruction; damage
 
* '''tipa''' /ˈti.pa/ (or '''tupa''' /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA [[wiktionary:طيب|طيب]] (or [[wiktionary:טוב|טוב]])
: ''v'' - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
: ''intj'' - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
 
* '''tiya''' /ˈti.ja/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]]
: ''n'' - aunt/uncle; extended family
 
* '''te''' /te/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Etymology_2_10|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Definitions_2|的]]
: ''v'' - to move away from
: ''prep'' - of; from
 
* '''tenpo''' /ˈtem.po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]
: ''n'' - time; moment; period
 
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/  from ENG [[wiktionary:tell|tell]]
: ''n'' - language; talk; speech
: ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
 
* '''tonpa''' /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞#Mandarin|同胞]]
: ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend
 
* '''tonye''' /ˈto.ɲe/ (or '''ton''' /ton/) from ZHO [[wiktionary:同一#Mandarin|同一]]
: ''v'' - be identical; same; equivalent; equal
 
= na =
 
* '''nai''' /naɪ/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:內#Japanese|內]]
: ''v'' - be inside; within
: ''prep'' - inside; within; during; while
 
* '''nano''' /ˈna.no/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:男#Definitions|男]]
: ''n'' - man; male
 
* '''nama''' /ˈna.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:نام#Verb|نام]]
: ''v'' - sleep; rest; relax
 
* '''naya''' /ˈna.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]]
: ''v'' - be new; fresh; young
 
* '''nalu''' /ˈna.lu/ from JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]]
: ''v'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
 
* '''ni''' /ni/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:你#Definitions|你]]
: ''pro'' - you [2sg]
 
* '''nun''' /nun/ from PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]]
: ''num'' - nine; 9
 
* '''ne''' /ne/ from ENG [[wiktionary:nay#Interjection|nay]]
: ''part'' - no; not; negative [NEG]
 
* '''nesi''' /ˈne.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]
: ''v'' - need; require; must
: ''n'' - obligation; need
 
* '''nen/ka''' /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:能#Definitions|能]]
: ''v'' - be able to; be capable; be possible
: ''n'' - potential; possibility; capability
 
* '''note''' /ˈno.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]]
: ''n'' - night; darkness
 
= pa =
 
* '''pa''' /pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]]
: ''num'' - eight; 8
 
* '''pan''' /pan/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]]
: ''n'' - bread; food; sustenance
 
* '''pala''' /ˈpa.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:palabra#Spanish|palabra]]
: ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme
 
* '''pina''' /ˈpi.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]]
: ''n'' - child; offspring; kid
 
* '''pu''' /pu/ from TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]
: ''part'' - this; these (here)
 
* '''pula''' /ˈpu.la/ from HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]
: ''n'' - evil
: ''v'' - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
 
* '''pen''' /pen/ from ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε#Greek|πέντε]]
: ''num'' - five; 5
 
* '''po''' /po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]
: ''prep'' - by; for; [be] about
: ''v'' - [go] through; [move] across
 
* '''poka''' /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]
: ''v'' - be small; little
: ''v'' - be few; less
 
* '''ponte''' /ˈpon.te/ from ENG [[wiktionary:ponder|ponder]]
: ''v'' - think; ponder; consider; weigh
: ''n'' - thought; idea; consideration
 
* '''pone''' /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poner|poner]]
: ''v'' - to put, to place, to set
 
= ma =
 
* '''ma''' /ma/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]
: ''part'' - interrogative particle [Q]
 
* '''maka''' /ˈma.ka/ from ENG [[wiktionary:make|make]]
: ''n'' - cause; action; happening
: ''v'' - do; make; cause; happen
 
* '''maso''' /ˈma.so/ from SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]
: ''part'' - more; again
: ''n'' - layer; repetition; addition
: ''v'' - add; repeat; layer
 
* '''mala''' /ˈma.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]]
: ''n'' - woman; female; wife
 
* '''mila''' /ˈmi.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]]
: ''num'' - thousand; 1000
 
* '''muki''' /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]]
: ''n'' - importance; significance
: ''v'' - be important; matter
 
* '''muna''' /ˈmu.na/ from ENG [[wiktionary:moon#English|moon]]
: ''n'' - moon; month
 
* '''me''' /me/ from FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]
: ''part'' - but; however; although
 
* '''moto''' /ˈmo.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]
: ''n'' - mood; manner; way; method
 
= ya =
 
* '''ya''' /ja/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]
: ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
 
* '''yati''' /ˈja.ti/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يد|يد]]
: ''n'' - hand; arm
: ''v'' - give; transfer
 
* '''yapu''' /ˈja.pu/ from ARA [[wiktionary:عفا|عفا]]
: ''n'' - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
: ''v'' - pardon; excuse; forgive
 
* '''yame''' /ˈja.me/ from ARA [[wiktionary:جمع|جمع]]
: ''n'' - collection; gathering; group; set
: ''v'' - gather; collect; assemble; unite
 
* '''yu''' /ju/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Definitions|于]]
: ''v'' - be in; at; out of
: ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of
 
* '''yuma''' /ˈju.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]
: ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period
 
* '''ye''' /je/ from KOR [[wiktionary:열#Korean|열]]
: ''num'' - ten; 10
 
* '''yeko''' /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以后]]
: ''prep'' - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
: ''adv'' - from now on; henceforth
 
* '''yo''' /jo/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]]
: ''v'' - have; possess; carry; hold; keep
 
= la =
 
* '''laka''' /ˈla.ka/ from ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]]
: ''n'' - number; digit; amount
: ''v'' - count; enumerate
 
* '''lata''' /ˈla.ta/ from SPA [[wiktionary:lata#Spanish|lata]]
: ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
: ''v'' - carry; tote; transport
 
* '''li''' /li/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:兩#Definitions|兩]]
: ''num'' - two; double; duo
: ''pro'' - some; a few
 
* '''le''' /le/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]]
: ''part'' - past tense marker [PST]
 
* '''loka''' /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]
: ''n'' - place; location; point; spot
 
= wa =
 
* '''wa''' /wa/ from ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:واحد|واحد]]/[[wiktionary:我|我]]
: ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
: ''num'' - one; 1; single
: ''v'' - be alone; be singular
 
* '''waya''' /ˈwa.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]
: ''v'' - grow; mature; develop
: ''n'' - adult; mature thing
 
 
 
* '''wino''' /ˈwi.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]]
: ''n'' - alcohol; beer; wine
: ''v'' - drink ~
 
* '''we''' /we/ from PIE [[wiktionary:econstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]
: ''num'' - six; 6
 
* '''weko''' /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]
: ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port
 
* '''wento''' /ˈwen.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]]
: ''n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
 
* '''wela''' /ˈwe.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]]
: ''prep'' - outside; exterior
: ''v'' - leave; exit
 
= a =
 
 
 
* '''alima''' /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:علم|علم]]
: ''v'' - to discern, to find out, to learn
: ''n'' - learning; education; knowledge
 
* '''amo''' /ˈa.mo/ from SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]
: ''n'' - love; affection; adoration
: ''v'' - love; adore; like
 
* '''ante''' /ˈan.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]
: ''n'' - front side; chest; fore area
: ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead
 
* '''asi''' /ˈa.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]
: ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so


=== subject/object pronoun constructions ===
* '''awa''' /ˈa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أو|أو]]
: ''part'' - either; or; other


=== demonstratives ===
* '''ayo''' /ˈa.jo/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أي|أي]]
:''part'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]


=== possessives ===
* '''e''' /e/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Etymology_2_17|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]]
: ''part'' - and; also; too


= descriptive verbs =
* '''ila''' /ˈi.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]
: ''prep'' - toward; at; in direction of
: ''v'' - go (toward); walk; travel


== comparisons ==
* '''o''' /o/ from JPN [[wiktionary:を#Etymology_2|を]]
: ''part'' - direct object particle


== superlatives ==


= adverbs =


= verbs =
* wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
* en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


== tense ==


=== present ===
A working phrasebook for [[Kalo]].


=== past ===
= Essentials =


=== future ===


== aspect ==
* '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]])


=== progressive ===
* '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is"
* '''ne''' - "no; it is not"


=== completed ===
* '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me."
* '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?]
:: by extension "Do you mind?"
* '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)."
* '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK."


== mood ==
= Greetings & Goodbyes =


=== negative ===
* '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
* '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night"
* '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"


=== commands & requests ===
== Civilities ==


=== should/ought to ===
* '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?''
** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine."
** '''...''' - "Not bad."


=== able to/can ===


= questions =


== yes/no ==


= locative verbs =


= conjunctions =


= number & counting =
* '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see''

Latest revision as of 10:48, 8 April 2025

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext

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  • In syllable codas, [ʃ] replaces [s].
  • In syllable codas, [ʒ] replaces [z].
  • [β] and [ʙ] are in free variation.
  • [ʁ] and [ʀ] are in free variation.

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Miyu allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.

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To italicize text, put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.

Three apostrophes each side will bold the text.

Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces bold italics.

Italic and bold formatting works correctly only within a single line.

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old / wrong

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects. [n] and [l] are in free variation. [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/. /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.


writing

All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul
Kalo Hangul


A katakana method for writing Kalo
Kalo Katakana

allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Syntax

  • wa kome - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o mala amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

singular plural possessive
1st person wa
I; me 		walo
we; us 		wayo
my; mine; our(s)
2nd person ni
you 		nilo
you (all) 		niyo
your(s)
3rd person ko
he; she; him; her; it 		kolo
they; them; those 		koyo
their(s)
  • walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.
  • kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.

  • maka - do; make; cause (from make)
  • yo - possess; have; hold (from 有)

tense, aspect, and mood

Past tense is indicated by the particle le (了) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle sa (سَـ).

tense/mood particle example translation
present - wa ila I go
past le wa ila le I went
future sa wa ila sa I will go
conditional kisa wa ila kisa I would go
  • ko ne kome le - 3sg NEG eat PST - He didn't eat.
  • walo wite sa ko - 1pl see FUT 3sg - We will see her.

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

  • yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
  • ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Particles

determiners

Determiners in kalo precede the noun they modify.

deixis

  • pu - this; these
  • su - that; those

amount

  • aku - many; much (one hundred)
  • kula - all; every; each
  • ne - no; none; zero
  • poka - some; several; a few
  • meno - less; fewer / few; a little
  • maso - more

other-ness

  • asi - such
  • ayo - whichever; whatever
  • oto - other
  • tonye - same

Number

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "ke" precedes the number.

  • ko yo le o kasa ke li
3s have PST O house NUM two
She had two houses.
  • wa wite o nano ke si
1s see O man NUM four
I see four men.

Higher Numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five




ka sa ta na pa ma ya la wa a i u e o

ka

  • kisa /ˈki.sa/ from SPA quizá
part - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
v - listen; hear
n - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
v - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
  • kome /ˈko.me/ from SPA comer
v - eat; consume; drink

sa

part - future tense particle [FUT]
  • saka/na /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA سخن
v - be hot; be warm; burn
n - heat; warmth / fire


  • sana /ˈsa.na/ from ARA سنة
n - year; 365 days
  • sapa /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA سبب
n - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
  • salama /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA سلم
n - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
v - be peaceful; be calm
intj - Peace! Hey! Hi!
  • sawa /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA زوج
n - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
v - marry
  • si /si/ from ZHO 四
num - four; 4
  • siya /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO 下
prep - below; under; beneath
v - be under; be lower
  • su /su/ from TUR şu
part - that; those (over there)
num - zero; 0
n - nothing
v - be empty; be void
  • se /se/ from SPA se
pro - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
  • sosa /ˈso.sa/ from SPA salsa
n - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing

ta

v - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
part/intj - thank you; thanks
  • tapo /ˈta.po/ from ZHO 打破
v - damage; wreck; break; destroy
n - destruction; damage
  • tipa /ˈti.pa/ (or tupa /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA طيب (or טוב)
v - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
intj - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
  • tiya /ˈti.ja/ from SPA tía
n - aunt/uncle; extended family
  • te /te/ from SPA/ZHO de/的
v - to move away from
prep - of; from
  • tenpo /ˈtem.po/ from SPA tiempo
n - time; moment; period
  • tela or talo /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/ from ENG tell
n - language; talk; speech
v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
  • tonpa /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO 同胞
n - sibling; compatriot; friend
  • tonye /ˈto.ɲe/ (or ton /ton/) from ZHO 同一
v - be identical; same; equivalent; equal

na

  • nai /naɪ/ from ZHO 內
v - be inside; within
prep - inside; within; during; while
  • nano /ˈna.no/ from ZHO 男
n - man; male
  • nama /ˈna.ma/ from ARA نام
v - sleep; rest; relax
v - be new; fresh; young
  • nalu /ˈna.lu/ from JPN なる
v - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
  • ni /ni/ from ZHO 你
pro - you [2sg]
num - nine; 9
  • ne /ne/ from ENG nay
part - no; not; negative [NEG]
v - need; require; must
n - obligation; need
  • nen/ka /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO 能
v - be able to; be capable; be possible
n - potential; possibility; capability
  • note /ˈno.te/ from SPA noche
n - night; darkness

pa

  • pa /pa/ from ZHO 八
num - eight; 8
  • pan /pan/ from SPA/ZHO pan/飯
n - bread; food; sustenance
n - word; morpheme; lexeme
  • pina /ˈpi.na/ from ARA ابن
n - child; offspring; kid
  • pu /pu/ from TUR bu
part - this; these (here)
n - evil
v - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
num - five; 5
  • po /po/ from SPA por
prep - by; for; [be] about
v - [go] through; [move] across
  • poka /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA poca
v - be small; little
v - be few; less
  • ponte /ˈpon.te/ from ENG ponder
v - think; ponder; consider; weigh
n - thought; idea; consideration
  • pone /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA poner
v - to put, to place, to set

ma

  • ma /ma/ from ZHO 嗎
part - interrogative particle [Q]
  • maka /ˈma.ka/ from ENG make
n - cause; action; happening
v - do; make; cause; happen
  • maso /ˈma.so/ from SPA más
part - more; again
n - layer; repetition; addition
v - add; repeat; layer
n - woman; female; wife
  • mila /ˈmi.la/ from SPA mil
num - thousand; 1000
  • muki /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA مهم
n - importance; significance
v - be important; matter
  • muna /ˈmu.na/ from ENG moon
n - moon; month
  • me /me/ from FRE mais
part - but; however; although
  • moto /ˈmo.to/ from SPA modo
n - mood; manner; way; method

ya

  • ya /ja/ from ARA يا
part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
  • yati /ˈja.ti/ from ARA يد
n - hand; arm
v - give; transfer
  • yapu /ˈja.pu/ from ARA عفا
n - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
v - pardon; excuse; forgive
  • yame /ˈja.me/ from ARA جمع
n - collection; gathering; group; set
v - gather; collect; assemble; unite
  • yu /ju/ from ZHO 于
v - be in; at; out of
prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of
  • yuma /ˈju.ma/ from ARA يوم
n - day; daylight; 24 hour period
  • ye /je/ from KOR 열
num - ten; 10
  • yeko /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO 以后
prep - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
adv - from now on; henceforth
  • yo /jo/ from ZHO 有
v - have; possess; carry; hold; keep

la

  • laka /ˈla.ka/ from ARA رقم
n - number; digit; amount
v - count; enumerate
  • lata /ˈla.ta/ from SPA lata
n - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
v - carry; tote; transport
  • li /li/ from ZHO 兩
num - two; double; duo
pro - some; a few
  • le /le/ from ZHO 了
part - past tense marker [PST]
  • loka /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA local
n - place; location; point; spot

wa

pro - I; me [1sg]
num - one; 1; single
v - be alone; be singular
v - grow; mature; develop
n - adult; mature thing


  • wino /ˈwi.no/ from SPA vino
n - alcohol; beer; wine
v - drink ~
num - six; 6
  • weko /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA hueco
n - door, hole, orifice, window; port
  • wento /ˈwen.to/ from SPA viento
n - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
  • wela /ˈwe.la/ from SPA fuera
prep - outside; exterior
v - leave; exit

a

  • alima /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA علم
v - to discern, to find out, to learn
n - learning; education; knowledge
  • amo /ˈa.mo/ from SPA amor
n - love; affection; adoration
v - love; adore; like
  • ante /ˈan.te/ from SPA ante
n - front side; chest; fore area
prep - before; in front; forward; ahead
  • asi /ˈa.si/ from SPA así
part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
  • awa /ˈa.wa/ from ARA أو
part - either; or; other
  • ayo /ˈa.jo/ from ARA أي
part - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
  • e /e/ from SPA/ZHO e/和
part - and; also; too
prep - toward; at; in direction of
v - go (toward); walk; travel
  • o /o/ from JPN を
part - direct object particle


  • wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
  • en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


A working phrasebook for Kalo.

Essentials

  • ola - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to aloha)
  • kan/a - "yes; it is"
  • ne - "no; it is not"
  • yapu wa - "Excuse me."
  • nenka ma - "Please." [lit: is (it) possible?]
by extension "Do you mind?"
  • tanka (ta) - "Thank you (very much)."
  • tipa - "(That's) OK."

Greetings & Goodbyes

  • ola yuma - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
  • ola note - "Good evening/night"
  • salama - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"

Civilities

  • moto (niyo) ma - manner 2s.POSS Q - How are you?
    • tipa - "Good/OK/Fine."
    • ... - "Not bad."




  • tenpo ta ne wite - time big no see - Long time no see
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