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This article is an outline of the '''grammar of [[Lingua Franca Nova]]''', a proposed international auxiliary language originally created by C. George Boeree and elaborated by the members of the LFN community. LFN has an analytic grammar and resembles the grammars of languages such as the [[Haitian Creole]], [[Papiamento]], and [[Afrikaans]]. On the other hand, it uses a vocabulary drawn from several modern romance languages - [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[French language|French]], and [[Italian language|Italian]].<ref name="Invented Languages">Harrison, Richard H. (2008) ''Lingua Franca Nova.'' '''Invented Languages, 1,''' pp.&nbsp;30 –33.</ref><ref>Fisahn, Stefan (2005) ''Plansprache: Lingua Franca Nova.'' '''Contraste''', '''244''', p. 12.</ref>


Complete grammars are available in English, French, Esperanto, and LFN.<ref name="LFN grammar">[http://ccgi.esperanto.plus.com/lfn/grammar.pdf LFN Grammar]</ref>
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext


==Word order==
= Heading 1 =


LFN has a strict [[word order]].<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" /> The general word order is:
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}.
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation.
* {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation.


:''subject noun phrase'' — ''verb phrase'' (— ''object noun phrase'')
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.
::''Joan core'' — "John runs"
::''Maria oia Joan'' — "Maria hears John"


A [[noun phrase]] has this order:
== Heading 2 ==
=== Heading 3 ===
==== Heading 4 ====


: (''determiners'' —) (''quantifiers'' —) ''noun'' (— ''adjectives'')
<nowiki>
::''La tre omes grande...'' — "The three large men..."
::''La multe femes peti...'' — "The many small women..."


A [[verb phrase]] has this order:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}


: (''tense/mood'' —) (''leading verb'' —) ''verb'' (— ''adverb'')
words
::''...ia nesesa come rapida'' — "...needed to eat quickly..."
::''...va debe come lente'' — "...will have to eat slowly..."


A [[Adpositional phrase|prepositional phrase]] generally follows what it modifies, and has this order:
{{col-break}}


: ''preposition'' — ''noun phrase''
ety
::''...en la cosina'' — "...in the kitchen"
::''...pos medianote'' — "...after midnight"


==Nouns==
{{col-break}}


The roles of [[nouns]] in a sentence are indicated through prepositions and word order. There are no [[Grammatical case|cases]].<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
abbs


Nouns are commonly preceded by [[determiner]]s. [[Plural]] nouns are formed by appending '''''-s''''' to nouns ending in vowels or '''''-es''''' to nouns ending in consonants. This does not alter the stress:
{{col-end}}
*''casa > casa'''s''''' — house > houses
*''fem > fem'''es''''' — woman > women


[[Mass noun]]s include liquids, powders, and substances, such as ''acua'' (water), ''arena'' (sand), and ''lenio'' (wood). They do not normally require determiners or the plural. However, one may add these to indicate specific examples or different types:
</nowiki>
*''la acua'' — the water (e.g. in the cup)
*''lenios'' — woods (e.g. various kinds)


[[Grammatical gender|Gender]] is typically not indicated. If necessary, nouns may be followed by '''''mas''''' (male) or '''''fema''''' (female):
===== Heading 5 =====
*''un cavalo '''mas''''' /  ''un cavalo '''fema''''' — a stallion / a mare
====== Heading 6 ======


A few terms for family members and traditional roles do show distinctions of gender. For example:
*''madre / padre'' — mother / father
*''fi'''o''' / fi'''a''''' — son / daughter
*''prinse / prins'''esa''''' — prince / princess


[[Apposition]] — the use of one noun to modify another — is mostly limited to names and titles:
: = indentation
*''san Josef'' — Saint Joseph
*''me sore Maria'' — my sister Mary


== Determiners ==
* Item1
* Item4
** Sub-item 4 a)
*** Sub-item 4 a) 1.
**** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
** Sub-item 4 b)
* Item5


[[Determiner (linguistics)|Determiners]] in LFN precede the noun they modify. There are two [[Article (grammar)|articles]]: '''''la''''' (the) and '''''un''''' (a), used as in English:<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
# Item1
* '''''la''' om, '''un''' fem, e enfantes'' — the man, a woman, and children
# Item4
## Sub-item 1
### Sub-sub-item
#### Sub-sub-sub-item
## Sub-item 2
# Item5


Other words function similarly:
; Term : Definition1
:{| style="width: 90%"
 
|-
; Term
| style="width: 45%" | '''''tota''''' — all<br> '''''esta''''' — this, these<br> '''''acel''''' — that, those<br> '''''cada''''' — every, each<br> '''''cualce''''' — whatever, whichever <br> '''''alga''''' — some, several, a few <br>'''''no''''' — no, zero || '''''multe''''' — many, much<br> '''''poca''''' — few, little<br> '''''plu''''' — more<br> '''''min''''' — less, fewer<br> '''''otra''''' — other<br> '''''mesma''''' — same<br> '''''tal''''' — such
: Definition1
: Definition2
: Definition3
 
To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.
 
Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''.
 
Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''.
 
'''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line.
 
For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}.
 
 
* [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]]
 
* [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]]
 
= old / wrong =
 
'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
 
'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
 
Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects.
[n] and [l] are in free variation.
[ɲ] is an allophone of /n/.
/x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.
 
 
 
=== writing ===
 
[[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]
 
 
 
[[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]
 
== allophony ==
The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
 
= Syntax =
 
 
* '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
* '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
 
= Nouns =
 
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
 
== pronouns ==
 
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
!
! singular
! plural
! possessive
|-align=center
! 1st person
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
|-align=center
! 2nd person
| '''ni'''<br>you
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
|-align=center
! 3rd person
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
|}
|}


==Pronouns==
* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
 
* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
 
= Verbs =
 
Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.
 
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
* '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])
 
== tense, aspect, and mood ==
 
Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).


Personal [[pronoun]]s are invariant:<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
:{| style="width: 90%"
|-−
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
|-
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
|-
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
|-
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
|-
|-
| style="width: 45%" | '''''me''''' — I, me <br> '''''tu''''' — you (singular (thou)) <br> '''''el''''' — she, her, he, him <br> '''''lo''''' — it || '''''nos''''' — we, us <br> '''''vos''''' — you (plural) <br> '''''los''''' — they, them
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
|}
|}


'''''El''''' is used for people and higher animals. Its use can be extended metaphorically to lower animals, robots, the moon, hurricanes, etc. '''''Lo''''' is used for things, simple animals, plants, ideas, etc.
* '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''
 
* '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''
 
== positional verbs ==
 
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
 
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
 
= Particles =
 
== determiners ==
 
Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.
 
=== deixis ===
 
* '''pu''' - this; these
* '''su''' - that; those
 
=== amount ===
 
* '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
* '''kula''' - all; every; each
* '''ne''' - no; none; zero
* '''poka''' - some; several; a few
::
* '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
* '''maso''' - more
 
=== other-ness ===
 
* '''asi''' - such
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
* '''oto''' - other
* '''tonye''' - same
 
= Number =
 
 
When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
 
* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
: ''She had two houses.''
 
* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
: ''I see four men.''
 
== Higher Numbers ==
 
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five
 
 
 
__NOTOC__
 


There are no [[grammatical gender|gender]] distinctions between "he" and "she".  If gender is significant, one can use words like '''''la fem, la om, la xica, la xico, la fema, la mas''''' (the woman, the man, the girl, the boy, the female, the male), etc.


Unlike in the Romance languages, there is no polite/impolite contrast for the second person: '''''tu''''' is always used for the singular, '''''vos''''' always for the plural.
<center>
[[#ka|ka]] [[#sa|sa]] [[#ta|ta]] [[#na|na]] [[#pa|pa]] [[#ma|ma]] [[#ya|ya]] [[#la|la]] [[#wa|wa]] [[#a|a i u e o]]
</center>


There is an indefinite pronoun '''''on''''', which is used like German "man" or French "on":
= ka =
* '''''On''' debe segue la regulas'' — "One must follow the rules."


The reflexive pronouns are also '''''me, tu, nos,''''' and '''''vos'''''. For the third person, singular and plural, lfn uses '''''se''''':
* '''kisa''' /ˈki.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]
* ''Me ia lava '''me''''' — "I washed myself."
: ''part'' - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
* ''El ama '''se''''' — "He loves himself."
The [[possessive]] determiners are the same as the reflexive pronouns. They are preceded by '''''la''''' before verbal nouns:
* '''''Tu''' gato es ala'' — "Your cat is over there."
*''Tu es sempre en '''me''' mente'' — "You are always in my mind."
* '''''La me''' desira es fol'' — "My desire is foolish."


There are no separate possessive pronouns such as "mine". Instead one uses expressions such as '''''de me''''' and '''''lo de me''''', or includes the noun:
* '''kute''' /ˈku.te/ from FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]]
* ''Esta es '''de me''''' — "This is mine."
: ''v'' - listen; hear
* '''''Lo de me''' es plu grande ca '''lo de tu''''' — "Mine is bigger than yours."
* '''''Me padre''' es plu grande ca '''tu padre''''' — "My father is bigger than your father."


Other pronouns include the following:
* '''kono''' /ˈko.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]
:{| style="width: 90%"
: ''n'' - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
|-
: ''v'' - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
| style="width: 45%" | '''''cadun''''' — everyone, everybody <br> '''''algun''''' — someone, somebody <br> '''''cualcun''''' — whomever, anyone, anybody <br> '''''nun''''' — no one, nobody <br> '''''esta, estas''''' — this, these <br> '''''multe''''' — many, much
 
| '''''cada cosa''''' — everything <br> '''''alga cosa''''' — something <br> '''''cualce cosa''''' — whatever, anything <br> '''''no cosa''''' — nothing <br> '''''acel, aceles''''' — that, those <br> '''''poca''''' — few, little
* '''kome''' /ˈko.me/ from SPA [[wiktionary:comer#Spanish|comer]]
|}
: ''v'' - eat; consume; drink
 
= sa =
 
* '''sa''' /sa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]
: ''part'' - future tense particle [FUT]
 
* '''saka/na''' /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]]
: ''v'' - be hot; be warm; burn
: ''n'' - heat; warmth / fire
 
 
* '''sana''' /ˈsa.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]]
: ''n'' - year; 365 days
 
* '''sapa''' /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]]
: ''n'' - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
 
* '''salama''' /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سلم#Arabic|سلم]]
: ''n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
: ''v'' - be peaceful; be calm
: ''intj'' - Peace! Hey! Hi!
 
* '''sawa''' /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]]
: ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
: ''v'' - marry
 
* '''si''' /si/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:四#Definitions|四]]
: ''num'' - four; 4
 
* '''siya''' /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:下#Definitions|下]]
: ''prep'' - below; under; beneath
: ''v'' - be under; be lower
 
* '''su''' /su/ from TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]
: ''part'' - that; those (over there)
 
* '''sunya''' /ˈsun.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]]
: ''num'' - zero; 0
: ''n'' - nothing
: ''v'' - be empty; be void
 
* '''se''' /se/ from SPA [[wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]]
: ''pro'' - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
 
* '''sosa''' /ˈso.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:salsa#Spanish|salsa]]
: ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing
 
= ta =
 
* '''tanka''' /ˈtaŋ.ka/ from ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke#German|danke]]
: ''v'' - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
: ''part/intj'' - thank you; thanks
 
* '''tapo''' /ˈta.po/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]]
: ''v'' - damage; wreck; break; destroy
: ''n'' - destruction; damage
 
* '''tipa''' /ˈti.pa/ (or '''tupa''' /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA [[wiktionary:طيب|طيب]] (or [[wiktionary:טוב|טוב]])
: ''v'' - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
: ''intj'' - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
 
* '''tiya''' /ˈti.ja/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]]
: ''n'' - aunt/uncle; extended family
 
* '''te''' /te/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Etymology_2_10|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Definitions_2|的]]
: ''v'' - to move away from
: ''prep'' - of; from
 
* '''tenpo''' /ˈtem.po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]
: ''n'' - time; moment; period
 
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/  from ENG [[wiktionary:tell|tell]]
: ''n'' - language; talk; speech
: ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
 
* '''tonpa''' /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞#Mandarin|同胞]]
: ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend
 
* '''tonye''' /ˈto.ɲe/ (or '''ton''' /ton/) from ZHO [[wiktionary:同一#Mandarin|同一]]
: ''v'' - be identical; same; equivalent; equal
 
= na =
 
* '''nai''' /naɪ/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:內#Japanese|內]]
: ''v'' - be inside; within
: ''prep'' - inside; within; during; while
 
* '''nano''' /ˈna.no/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:男#Definitions|男]]
: ''n'' - man; male
 
* '''nama''' /ˈna.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:نام#Verb|نام]]
: ''v'' - sleep; rest; relax
 
* '''naya''' /ˈna.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]]
: ''v'' - be new; fresh; young
 
* '''nalu''' /ˈna.lu/ from JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]]
: ''v'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
 
* '''ni''' /ni/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:你#Definitions|你]]
: ''pro'' - you [2sg]
 
* '''nun''' /nun/ from PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]]
: ''num'' - nine; 9
 
* '''ne''' /ne/ from ENG [[wiktionary:nay#Interjection|nay]]
: ''part'' - no; not; negative [NEG]
 
* '''nesi''' /ˈne.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]
: ''v'' - need; require; must
: ''n'' - obligation; need
 
* '''nen/ka''' /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:能#Definitions|能]]
: ''v'' - be able to; be capable; be possible
: ''n'' - potential; possibility; capability
 
* '''note''' /ˈno.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]]
: ''n'' - night; darkness
 
= pa =
 
* '''pa''' /pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]]
: ''num'' - eight; 8
 
* '''pan''' /pan/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]]
: ''n'' - bread; food; sustenance
 
* '''pala''' /ˈpa.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:palabra#Spanish|palabra]]
: ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme
 
* '''pina''' /ˈpi.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]]
: ''n'' - child; offspring; kid
 
* '''pu''' /pu/ from TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]
: ''part'' - this; these (here)
 
* '''pula''' /ˈpu.la/ from HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]
: ''n'' - evil
: ''v'' - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
 
* '''pen''' /pen/ from ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε#Greek|πέντε]]
: ''num'' - five; 5
 
* '''po''' /po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]
: ''prep'' - by; for; [be] about
: ''v'' - [go] through; [move] across
 
* '''poka''' /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]
: ''v'' - be small; little
: ''v'' - be few; less
 
* '''ponte''' /ˈpon.te/ from ENG [[wiktionary:ponder|ponder]]
: ''v'' - think; ponder; consider; weigh
: ''n'' - thought; idea; consideration


==Verbs==
* '''pone''' /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poner|poner]]
: ''v'' - to put, to place, to set


There are no [[grammatical conjugation|conjugations]] of [[verb]]s in LFN. The basic form remains the same regardless of person, number, or tense.<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
= ma =


The [[present tense]] is represented by the basic verb:
* '''ma''' /ma/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]
*''La om '''come''''' — "The man eats", "The man is eating."
: ''part'' - interrogative particle [Q]


The present tense is also used to indicate habitual actions and states, facts of nature, and as a "historical" tense, such as when relating a story that has been clearly established as occurring in the past:
* '''maka''' /ˈma.ka/ from ENG [[wiktionary:make|make]]
*''La sol '''leva''' en la este'' — "The sun rises in the east."
: ''n'' - cause; action; happening
*''Me '''labora''' a la universia'' — "I work at the university."
: ''v'' - do; make; cause; happen


The [[past tense]] is indicated by the particle '''''ia''''':  
* '''maso''' /ˈma.so/ from SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]
*''Maria '''ia''' come'' — "Maria ate."
: ''part'' - more; again
: ''n'' - layer; repetition; addition
: ''v'' - add; repeat; layer


The [[future tense]] is indicated by the particle '''''va''''':  
* '''mala''' /ˈma.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]]
*''Joan '''va''' come pronto'' — "John will eat soon."
: ''n'' - woman; female; wife


The particle '''''ta'''''  indicates the [[irrealis mood]] and can be used where other languages might use a [[Conditional mood|conditional]] or [[subjunctive]] mood. Its use is optional:
* '''mila''' /ˈmi.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]]
*''Me ia duta ce el '''ta''' vade'' — "I doubted he would go."
: ''num'' - thousand; 1000
*''Me '''ta''' es felis si la sol '''ta''' brilia'' — "I would be happy if the sun were shining."


One combination ― '''''ia ta''''' ― is permitted to express "would have":
* '''muki''' /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]]
*''Me '''ia ta''' es un bon re'' ― "I would have been a good king."
: ''n'' - importance; significance
: ''v'' - be important; matter


Certain [[adverbs]] and verbal constructions add precision to the tenses:
* '''muna''' /ˈmu.na/ from ENG [[wiktionary:moon#English|moon]]
* ''Me come '''aora''''' ― "I am eating now."
: ''n'' - moon; month
*''Me ia come '''ja''''' ― "I ate already", "I have eaten", "I had eaten."
* ''Me va come '''a pos''''' ― "I will eat afterwards."
* ''Me ia '''fini''' leje la libro'' ― "I (have) finished reading the book."
* ''Doman, me va '''comensa''' leje un otra'' ― "Tomorrow, I will begin to read another."


[[Negation (linguistics)|Negation]] is indicated by putting '''''no''''' before the tense particle or (in the present tense) the verb. Double negatives should be avoided:
* '''me''' /me/ from FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]
*''El '''no''' ia pensa ce algun es asi'' ― "He didn't think anyone was here."
: ''part'' - but; however; although


[[Imperative mood|Commands]] are indicated by dropping the subject pronoun. [[Hortative]] sentences include the subject, but are preceded by '''''ta ce''''':
* '''moto''' /ˈmo.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]
* ''Boli la acua!'' ― "Boil the water!"
: ''n'' - mood; manner; way; method
* '''''Ta ce''' nos dansa!'' ― "Let's dance!"


'''''Lo''''' and '''''on''''' are used as [[dummy pronoun]]s before verbs that refer to weather or other general situations:
= ya =
* ''Lo va pluve'' ― "It's going to rain."
* ''Lo es tro calda en esta sala'' ― "It is too hot in this room."
* ''Lo pare ce tu es coreta'' ― "It seems that you are correct."
* ''On no ave pexes en esta lago'' ― "There aren't fish in this lake."


A verb that is fundamentally [[Transitivity|intransitive]] may be used as a transitive [[Causative|causal verb]] by moving the original subject to the object position, and adding a new subject:
* '''ya''' /ja/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]
* ''La acua ia boli'' ― "The water boiled" > ''Me ia boli la acua'' - "I boiled the water."
: ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
* ''La porte ia abri'' ― "The door opened" > ''Me ia abri la porte'' ― "I opened the door."


Verbs can be made into adjectives: The [[participle|active participle]] is formed by adding '''''-nte''''' to the verb. For example, ''come'' becomes ''come'''nte''''', meaning "eating".  This should never be used as a gerund, as it often is in English.
* '''yati''' /ˈja.ti/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يد|يد]]
: ''n'' - hand; arm
: ''v'' - give; transfer


One can emphasize the idea that the subject is in the midst of an activity or process ([[Continuous and progressive aspects|the progressive aspect]]) using the active participle. Or one can use expressions such as ''en la media de'':
* '''yapu''' /ˈja.pu/ from ARA [[wiktionary:عفا|عفا]]
*''Nos ia '''es comente''' cuando la tempesta ia comensa'' ― "We were eating when the storm began."
: ''n'' - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
*''Nos ia es '''en la media de come''' cuando la tempesta ia comensa'' ― "We were in the middle of eating when the storm began."
: ''v'' - pardon; excuse; forgive


The [[participle|passive participle]] is formed by adding '''''-da''''' to the verb. For example, ''come'' becomes ''come'''da''''', meaning "eaten". This should not be confused with the past tense.
* '''yame''' /ˈja.me/ from ARA [[wiktionary:جمع|جمع]]
: ''n'' - collection; gathering; group; set
: ''v'' - gather; collect; assemble; unite


The passive participle can be used to express the [[grammatical voice|passive voice]]. Or one can usa a generic subject pronoun instead:
* '''yu''' /ju/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Definitions|于]]
*''Si tu no asconde la torta, '''lo va es comeda''''' ― "If you don't hide the cake, it will be eaten."
: ''v'' - be in; at; out of
*''Si tu no asconde la torta, '''algun va come lo''''' ― "If you don't hide the cake, someone will eat it."
: ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of


Verbs can be used as nouns without change by adding ''la'' or other determiner. Without a determiner, the word serves as an [[infinitive]] or [[gerund]]:
* '''yuma''' /ˈju.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]
*''La samba es '''un''' dansa.'' ― "The samba is a dance."
: ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period
*''Do es '''la''' dansa?'' ― "Where is the dance?"
*''Los gusta dansa.'' ― "They like to dance," "They like dancing."


In LFN, verbs often come in pairs. Some "leading" verbs are like [[modal verbs]] in English. However, the idea of leading verbs goes beyond modals to include "attitudinal" verbs such as '''''finje''''' (pretend) and '''''pare''''' (seem). There is no equivalent to the word "to," and the "following" verb is left in its simplest form:  
* '''ye''' /je/ from KOR [[wiktionary:열#Korean|열]]
*''Me va '''atenta vola''' doman.'' ― "I will try to fly tomorrow."
: ''num'' - ten; 10
*''On '''debe brosi''' la dentes a cada dia.'' ― "One should brush one's teeth every day."


==Adjectives==
* '''yeko''' /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以后]]
: ''prep'' - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
: ''adv'' - from now on; henceforth


[[Adjective]]s follow the noun they modify, with two exceptions:  '''''Bon''''' (good) and '''''mal''''' (bad) may come before the noun, due to their frequent use.  Unlike the natural Romance languages, adjectives in LFN do not have gender or plural forms, i.e. they don't "agree" with the nouns they describe.<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
* '''yo''' /jo/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]]
: ''v'' - have; possess; carry; hold; keep


The [[comparative]] is made with '''''plu''''' (more) or '''''min''''' (less).  "The most" is '''''la plu''''' and "the least" is '''''la min:'''''
= la =
*''Jan es '''plu''' bon '''ca''' Jo, ma Jil es '''la plu''' bon.'' ― "Jan is better than Jo, but Jill is the best."


Equivalence is indicated with '''''tan... como''''':
* '''laka''' /ˈla.ka/ from ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]]
*''Marco es '''tan''' grande '''como''' Mona.'' ― "Mark is as big as Mona."
: ''n'' - number; digit; amount
: ''v'' - count; enumerate


Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, ''bela'' means "beautiful", but ''un bela'' means "a beautiful one" or "a beauty." This works with participles, too: ''la studiante'' and ''la studiada'' mean "the student" and "the studied," respectively, from the verb ''studia,'' "study."
* '''lata''' /ˈla.ta/ from SPA [[wiktionary:lata#Spanish|lata]]
: ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
: ''v'' - carry; tote; transport


An adjective can be made into an [[abstract noun]] by adding '''''-ia''''' (-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood).  In this way ''bela'' becomes ''bel'''ia''','' meaning beauty.  This can also be used with nouns: ''madre'' (mother) becomes ''madr'''ia''''' (motherhood).
* '''li''' /li/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:兩#Definitions|兩]]
: ''num'' - two; double; duo
: ''pro'' - some; a few


==Adverbs==
* '''le''' /le/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]]
: ''part'' - past tense marker [PST]


LFN doesn't have an explicit way of marking [[adverb]]s.<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" /> Instead, any adjective can be used as an adverb by placing it after a verb or at the very beginning of the sentence. ''Un om felis'' for example means "a happy man", whereas ''el dansa felis'' means "he/she dances happily". Adverbs used to modify adjectives ''precede'' the adjective.
* '''loka''' /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]
: ''n'' - place; location; point; spot


Examples of common adverbs include the following:
= wa =
:{| style="width: 90%"
|-
| style="width: 45%" | '''''aora''''' ― now <br>'''''alora''''' ― then <br>'''''ancora''''' ― still, yet<br>'''''ja''''' ― already <br>'''''sempre''''' ― always <br>'''''nunca''''' ― never <br>'''''an''''' ― even || '''''ier''''' ― yesterday <br>'''''oji''''' ― today <br>'''''doman''''' ― tomorrow <br>'''''asi''''' ― here <br>'''''ala''''' ― there <br>'''''tro''''' ― too<br>'''''apena''''' ― barely, scarcely
|}


==Prepositions==
* '''wa''' /wa/ from ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:واحد|واحد]]/[[wiktionary:我|我]]
: ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
: ''num'' - one; 1; single
: ''v'' - be alone; be singular


[[Preposition]]s are placed before the noun or noun phrase, and the [[Adpositional phrase|prepositional phrase]] is placed after the noun being modified, or, if used adverbially, after the verb or at the beginning of the sentence.<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />  There are 22 basic prepositions in LFN:
* '''waya''' /ˈwa.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]
:{| style="width: 90%"
: ''v'' - grow; mature; develop
|-
: ''n'' - adult; mature thing
| style="width: 45%" | '''''a''''' ― at, to <br>'''''ante''''' ― before, in front of <br>'''''asta''''' ― until <br>'''''ca''''' ― than <br>'''''como''''' ― like <br>'''''con''''' ― with <br>'''''contra''''' ― against <br>'''''de''''' ― of, from, since <br>'''''en''''' ― in, into, during <br>'''''entre''''' ― between, among <br>'''''estra''''' ― out of, except || '''''longo''''' ― along <br>'''''par''''' ― by <br>'''''per''''' ― for, in order to <br>'''''pos''''' ― after, behind, according to <br>'''''sin''''' ― without <br>'''''sirca''''' ― around, approximately <br>'''''su''''' ― below, under, beneath <br>'''''supra''''' ― above, over <br>'''''sur''''' ― on, about, concerning <br>'''''tra''''' ― through <br>'''''ultra''''' ― beyond, past, across
|}


Some prepositions can be used as adverbs by placing '''''a''''' or '''''de''''' before them.
*'''''a su''''' ― down, below, downstairs
*'''''a pos''''' ― after, afterwards, behind, out back


==Coordinating conjunctions==


There are three [[Grammatical conjunction|coordinating conjunctions]] in LFN and three correlative conjunctions:<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" />
* '''wino''' /ˈwi.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]]
:{| style="width: 90%"
: ''n'' - alcohol; beer; wine
|-
: ''v'' - drink ~
| style="width: 45%" | '''''e''''' ― and<br> '''''o''''' ― or <br> '''''ma''''' ― but, yet || '''''e ... e ...''''' ― both ... and ...<br>'''''o ... o ...''''' ― either ... or ...<br>'''''no ... (e) no ...''''' ― neither ... nor ...
|
|}


==Questions==
* '''we''' /we/ from PIE [[wiktionary:econstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]
: ''num'' - six; 6


There are a number of [[interrogative word]]s that are used to introduce [[question]]s:<ref name="Invented Languages" /><ref name="LFN grammar" /><ref>Christo Moskovsky & Alan Libert (2006) Questions in Natural and Artificial Languages. '''Journal of Universal Language 7''', pp 65-120 http://www.unish.org/upload/word/7-2-03-QuestionsInNat%26ALs2.pdf</ref>
* '''weko''' /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]
:{| style="width: 90%"
: ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port
|-
| style="width: 45%" |'''''cual''''' ― what, which <br>'''''ci''''' ― who, whom <br>'''''de ci''''' ― whose, of whom <br>'''''cuando''''' ― when || '''''do''''' ― where <br>'''''como''''' ― how <br> '''''cuanto''''' ― how much, how many <br> '''''perce''''' ― why
|}


(Most of these are also used to introduce [[subordinate clause]]s, discussed below.)
* '''wento''' /ˈwen.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]]
: ''n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit


For example:
* '''wela''' /ˈwe.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]]
* '''''Cuanto''' on paia per lete asi?'' ― "How much does one pay for milk here?"
: ''prep'' - outside; exterior
* '''''Cual''' auto tu gusta la plu?'' ― "Which car do you like the best?"
: ''v'' - leave; exit
* '''''Perce''' tu no gusta esta?'' ― "Why don't you like this one?"
* '''''Cuando''' tu espeta ce el ariva?'' ― "When do you expect him to arrive?"


Questions may include one of these words or may be indicated by rising intonation alone. One may also express questions by beginning the sentence with the interrogative particle '''''esce''''' ("is it that... ?") or by adding '''''no''''' (no) or '''''si''''' (yes) to the end of the sentence. In writing, questions always end with a question mark (?):
= a =


* '''''Como''' on construi un casa per avias?'' ― "How do you make a bird house?"
* ''Tu vole dansa?'' ― "Do you want to dance?"
* '''''Esce''' tu parla Deutx?'' ― "Do you speak German?"
* ''Tu parla Italian, '''no'''?'' ― "You speak Italian, don't you?"


==Clauses==


[[Relative clauses]] (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. There are two [[relative pronouns]] which typically introduce relative clauses:<ref name="LFN grammar" />
* '''alima''' /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:علم|علم]]
: ''v'' - to discern, to find out, to learn
: ''n'' - learning; education; knowledge


: '''''cual''''' ― which, that
* '''amo''' /ˈa.mo/ from SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]
: '''''ci''''' ― who, whom
: ''n'' - love; affection; adoration
: ''v'' - love; adore; like


Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:
* '''ante''' /ˈan.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]
: ''n'' - front side; chest; fore area
: ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead


* ''La fem '''ci''' me ama veni de Frans.'' ― "The woman (whom) I love comes from France."
* '''asi''' /ˈa.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]
* ''La robot '''cual''' me ia construi no opera.'' ― "The robot (that) I built doesn't work."
: ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
* ''Me no comprende lo '''cual''' tu intende.'' ― "I don't understand what you mean."


Relative pronouns may be preceded by prepositions:
* '''awa''' /ˈa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أو|أو]]
* ''La cosa '''per cual''' me espera la plu es un bisicle nova.'' ― "The thing I wish for the most is a new bicycle."
: ''part'' - either; or; other
* ''La fem '''de ci''' nos parla labora a la me ofisia.'' ― "The woman of whom we speak works at my office."


'''''Cuando''''' and '''''do''''' can also be used to introduce adjective clauses:
* '''ayo''' /ˈa.jo/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أي|أي]]
:''part'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]


* ''Esta es la site '''do''' me vole abita.'' ― "This is the city where I want to live."
* '''e''' /e/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Etymology_2_17|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]]
* ''Me ia vade ala en la anio '''cuando''' me ia fini la me studias.'' ― "I went there in the year when I finished my studies."
: ''part'' - and; also; too


[[Dependent clause#Noun_clause|Noun clauses]] function the same way that nouns and noun phrases do in a sentence.<ref name="LFN grammar" /> Two [[subordinating conjunctions]] commonly introduce noun clauses:
* '''ila''' /ˈi.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]
: ''prep'' - toward; at; in direction of
: ''v'' - go (toward); walk; travel


: '''''ce''''' ― that
* '''o''' /o/ from JPN [[wiktionary:を#Etymology_2|を]]
: '''''esce''''' ― whether
: ''part'' - direct object particle


For example:


* ''Me pensa '''ce''' el es bela.'' ― "I think that she is beautiful."
* ''La gato entra la sala '''sin ce''' algun vide el.'' ― "The cat entered the room without anyone seeing it."
* ''Me demanda a me '''esce''' el ama me.'' ― "I wonder whether she loves me."


Relative pronouns and interrogative words can also introduce noun clauses:
* wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
* en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


* ''Me no pote recorda '''ci''' me es.'' ― "I can't remember who I am."
* ''Me no sabe '''cuando''' me va parti.'' ― I don't know when I will leave."
* ''Me no gusta '''como''' el parla.'' ― "I don't like how he talks."
*''Me no sabe '''cual''' tu desira per natal'' ― "I don't know what you want for Christmas."


[[Dependent clause#Adverbial_clause|Adverbial clauses]] function like adverbs, modifying the verb or the sentence as a whole. Some are introduced by these subordinating conjunctions:<ref name="LFN grammar" />
A working phrasebook for [[Kalo]].


: '''''si''''' ― if
= Essentials =
: '''''afin''''' ― so that, in order that
: '''''car''''' ― because


Adverbial clauses usually follow the main clause:


* ''Me ta pote vade '''si''' me ta ave un auto.'' ― "I would be able to go if I had a car."
* '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]])
* ''Me no teme la can '''car''' el es multe peti.'' ― "I am not afraid of the dog because it is very small."
* ''Me core '''afin''' la rinoseros no catura me.'' ― "I'm running so that the rhinos don't catch me."


Some of the interrogative words can also be used to introduce adverbial clauses:
* '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is"
* '''ne''' - "no; it is not"


* ''La lupos cria '''cuando''' los vide la luna'' ― "The wolves howl when they see the moon."
* '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me."
* ''Me vole abitua '''do''' la clima es bon'' ― "I want to live where the weather is good."
* '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?]
* ''Me vive '''como''' me vole vive.'' ― "I live as I want to live."
:: by extension "Do you mind?"
* '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)."
* '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK."


'''''Do''''' and '''''cuando''''' are often preceded by prepositions:
= Greetings & Goodbyes =


:{| style="width: 90%"
* '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
|-
* '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night"
| style="width: 45%" |  '''''a do''''' ― to where, whither <br> '''''de do''''' ― from where, whence <br> '''''ante cuando''''' ― before <br> '''''pos cuando''''' ― after || '''''en cuando''''' ― while  <br>  '''''asta cuando''''' ― until  <br> '''''de cuando''''' ― since
* '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"
|}


For example:
== Civilities ==


* ''El ia pote sci '''ante cuando''' el ia pote pasea.'' ― "He could ski before he could walk."
* '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?''
* ''Me gusta escuta a la radio '''en cuando''' me labora.'' ― "I like to listen to the radio while I work."
** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine."
** '''...''' - "Not bad."


==Numbers==


Numbers in LFN are as follows:<ref name="LFN grammar" />
:{| style="width: 90%"
|-
| style="width: 45%" | 0 ― '''''zero'''''<br>1 ― '''''un'''''<br> 2 ― '''''du'''''<br> 3 ― '''''tre'''''<br> 4 ― '''''cuatro'''''<br> 5 ― '''''sinco''''' || 6 ― '''''ses'''''<br> 7 ― '''''sete'''''<br> 8 ― '''''oto'''''<br> 9 ― '''''nove'''''<br> 10 ― '''''des'''''
|}


Higher numbers are constructed as follows:
:{| style="width: 90%"
|-
| style="width: 45%" |  11 ― '''''des-un'''''<br>  20 ― '''''dudes'''''<br>  100 ― '''''sento'''''<br>  321 ― '''''tresento-dudes-un'''''|| 1000 ― '''''mil'''''<br>  45 678 ― '''''cuatrodes-sinco mil sessento-setedes-oto'''''<br>  1 000 000 ― '''''milion'''''<br>  1 000 000 000 ― '''''mil milion'''''
|}


Numbers that express quantity precede the noun; numbers that express order follow the noun:
*''la '''tre''' omes,'' "the three men"
*''la om '''tre''','' "the third man"


Fractions are constructed with '''''-i,''''' e.g. '''''dui, tri, cuatri,... desi, senti, mili,''''' etc.


Multiples and groups can be referred to with '''''-uple,''''' as in '''''duple''''' ― double, duo, couple, pair.
* '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see''

Latest revision as of 10:48, 8 April 2025

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext

Heading 1

  • In syllable codas, [ʃ] replaces [s].
  • In syllable codas, [ʒ] replaces [z].
  • [β] and [ʙ] are in free variation.
  • [ʁ] and [ʀ] are in free variation.

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Miyu allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.

Heading 2

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{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} words {{col-break}} ety {{col-break}} abbs {{col-end}}

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    • Sub-item 4 a)
      • Sub-item 4 a) 1.
        • Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
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Term
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To italicize text, put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.

Three apostrophes each side will bold the text.

Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces bold italics.

Italic and bold formatting works correctly only within a single line.

For text as Template:Smallcaps, use the template {{smallcaps}}.


old / wrong

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects. [n] and [l] are in free variation. [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/. /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.


writing

All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul
Kalo Hangul


A katakana method for writing Kalo
Kalo Katakana

allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Syntax

  • wa kome - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o mala amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

singular plural possessive
1st person wa
I; me 		walo
we; us 		wayo
my; mine; our(s)
2nd person ni
you 		nilo
you (all) 		niyo
your(s)
3rd person ko
he; she; him; her; it 		kolo
they; them; those 		koyo
their(s)
  • walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.
  • kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.

  • maka - do; make; cause (from make)
  • yo - possess; have; hold (from 有)

tense, aspect, and mood

Past tense is indicated by the particle le (了) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle sa (سَـ).

tense/mood particle example translation
present - wa ila I go
past le wa ila le I went
future sa wa ila sa I will go
conditional kisa wa ila kisa I would go
  • ko ne kome le - 3sg NEG eat PST - He didn't eat.
  • walo wite sa ko - 1pl see FUT 3sg - We will see her.

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

  • yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
  • ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Particles

determiners

Determiners in kalo precede the noun they modify.

deixis

  • pu - this; these
  • su - that; those

amount

  • aku - many; much (one hundred)
  • kula - all; every; each
  • ne - no; none; zero
  • poka - some; several; a few
  • meno - less; fewer / few; a little
  • maso - more

other-ness

  • asi - such
  • ayo - whichever; whatever
  • oto - other
  • tonye - same

Number

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "ke" precedes the number.

  • ko yo le o kasa ke li
3s have PST O house NUM two
She had two houses.
  • wa wite o nano ke si
1s see O man NUM four
I see four men.

Higher Numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five




ka sa ta na pa ma ya la wa a i u e o

ka

  • kisa /ˈki.sa/ from SPA quizá
part - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
v - listen; hear
n - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
v - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
  • kome /ˈko.me/ from SPA comer
v - eat; consume; drink

sa

part - future tense particle [FUT]
  • saka/na /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA سخن
v - be hot; be warm; burn
n - heat; warmth / fire


  • sana /ˈsa.na/ from ARA سنة
n - year; 365 days
  • sapa /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA سبب
n - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
  • salama /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA سلم
n - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
v - be peaceful; be calm
intj - Peace! Hey! Hi!
  • sawa /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA زوج
n - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
v - marry
  • si /si/ from ZHO 四
num - four; 4
  • siya /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO 下
prep - below; under; beneath
v - be under; be lower
  • su /su/ from TUR şu
part - that; those (over there)
num - zero; 0
n - nothing
v - be empty; be void
  • se /se/ from SPA se
pro - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
  • sosa /ˈso.sa/ from SPA salsa
n - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing

ta

v - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
part/intj - thank you; thanks
  • tapo /ˈta.po/ from ZHO 打破
v - damage; wreck; break; destroy
n - destruction; damage
  • tipa /ˈti.pa/ (or tupa /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA طيب (or טוב)
v - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
intj - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
  • tiya /ˈti.ja/ from SPA tía
n - aunt/uncle; extended family
  • te /te/ from SPA/ZHO de/的
v - to move away from
prep - of; from
  • tenpo /ˈtem.po/ from SPA tiempo
n - time; moment; period
  • tela or talo /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/ from ENG tell
n - language; talk; speech
v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
  • tonpa /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO 同胞
n - sibling; compatriot; friend
  • tonye /ˈto.ɲe/ (or ton /ton/) from ZHO 同一
v - be identical; same; equivalent; equal

na

  • nai /naɪ/ from ZHO 內
v - be inside; within
prep - inside; within; during; while
  • nano /ˈna.no/ from ZHO 男
n - man; male
  • nama /ˈna.ma/ from ARA نام
v - sleep; rest; relax
v - be new; fresh; young
  • nalu /ˈna.lu/ from JPN なる
v - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
  • ni /ni/ from ZHO 你
pro - you [2sg]
num - nine; 9
  • ne /ne/ from ENG nay
part - no; not; negative [NEG]
v - need; require; must
n - obligation; need
  • nen/ka /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO 能
v - be able to; be capable; be possible
n - potential; possibility; capability
  • note /ˈno.te/ from SPA noche
n - night; darkness

pa

  • pa /pa/ from ZHO 八
num - eight; 8
  • pan /pan/ from SPA/ZHO pan/飯
n - bread; food; sustenance
n - word; morpheme; lexeme
  • pina /ˈpi.na/ from ARA ابن
n - child; offspring; kid
  • pu /pu/ from TUR bu
part - this; these (here)
n - evil
v - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
num - five; 5
  • po /po/ from SPA por
prep - by; for; [be] about
v - [go] through; [move] across
  • poka /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA poca
v - be small; little
v - be few; less
  • ponte /ˈpon.te/ from ENG ponder
v - think; ponder; consider; weigh
n - thought; idea; consideration
  • pone /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA poner
v - to put, to place, to set

ma

  • ma /ma/ from ZHO 嗎
part - interrogative particle [Q]
  • maka /ˈma.ka/ from ENG make
n - cause; action; happening
v - do; make; cause; happen
  • maso /ˈma.so/ from SPA más
part - more; again
n - layer; repetition; addition
v - add; repeat; layer
n - woman; female; wife
  • mila /ˈmi.la/ from SPA mil
num - thousand; 1000
  • muki /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA مهم
n - importance; significance
v - be important; matter
  • muna /ˈmu.na/ from ENG moon
n - moon; month
  • me /me/ from FRE mais
part - but; however; although
  • moto /ˈmo.to/ from SPA modo
n - mood; manner; way; method

ya

  • ya /ja/ from ARA يا
part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
  • yati /ˈja.ti/ from ARA يد
n - hand; arm
v - give; transfer
  • yapu /ˈja.pu/ from ARA عفا
n - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
v - pardon; excuse; forgive
  • yame /ˈja.me/ from ARA جمع
n - collection; gathering; group; set
v - gather; collect; assemble; unite
  • yu /ju/ from ZHO 于
v - be in; at; out of
prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of
  • yuma /ˈju.ma/ from ARA يوم
n - day; daylight; 24 hour period
  • ye /je/ from KOR 열
num - ten; 10
  • yeko /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO 以后
prep - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
adv - from now on; henceforth
  • yo /jo/ from ZHO 有
v - have; possess; carry; hold; keep

la

  • laka /ˈla.ka/ from ARA رقم
n - number; digit; amount
v - count; enumerate
  • lata /ˈla.ta/ from SPA lata
n - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
v - carry; tote; transport
  • li /li/ from ZHO 兩
num - two; double; duo
pro - some; a few
  • le /le/ from ZHO 了
part - past tense marker [PST]
  • loka /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA local
n - place; location; point; spot

wa

pro - I; me [1sg]
num - one; 1; single
v - be alone; be singular
v - grow; mature; develop
n - adult; mature thing


  • wino /ˈwi.no/ from SPA vino
n - alcohol; beer; wine
v - drink ~
num - six; 6
  • weko /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA hueco
n - door, hole, orifice, window; port
  • wento /ˈwen.to/ from SPA viento
n - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
  • wela /ˈwe.la/ from SPA fuera
prep - outside; exterior
v - leave; exit

a

  • alima /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA علم
v - to discern, to find out, to learn
n - learning; education; knowledge
  • amo /ˈa.mo/ from SPA amor
n - love; affection; adoration
v - love; adore; like
  • ante /ˈan.te/ from SPA ante
n - front side; chest; fore area
prep - before; in front; forward; ahead
  • asi /ˈa.si/ from SPA así
part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
  • awa /ˈa.wa/ from ARA أو
part - either; or; other
  • ayo /ˈa.jo/ from ARA أي
part - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
  • e /e/ from SPA/ZHO e/和
part - and; also; too
prep - toward; at; in direction of
v - go (toward); walk; travel
  • o /o/ from JPN を
part - direct object particle


  • wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
  • en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


A working phrasebook for Kalo.

Essentials

  • ola - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to aloha)
  • kan/a - "yes; it is"
  • ne - "no; it is not"
  • yapu wa - "Excuse me."
  • nenka ma - "Please." [lit: is (it) possible?]
by extension "Do you mind?"
  • tanka (ta) - "Thank you (very much)."
  • tipa - "(That's) OK."

Greetings & Goodbyes

  • ola yuma - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
  • ola note - "Good evening/night"
  • salama - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"

Civilities

  • moto (niyo) ma - manner 2s.POSS Q - How are you?
    • tipa - "Good/OK/Fine."
    • ... - "Not bad."




  • tenpo ta ne wite - time big no see - Long time no see
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