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| ==..... The main verb form (the r-form)==
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| Now we take a typical verb to demonstrate the Limbawa verb system. '''doika''' meaning "to walk" or "the act of walking" will do.
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... In English the form of a verb which we use when we are talking about that verb, is called the "infinitive". The English infinitive seems to function pretty much like a noun, though it retains some verb-like characteristics. In Limbawa the form used (the recitation form) when we talk about a verb, is called '''gamba''' (meaning source or origin). It is fully a noun. For example '''kalme''' would be translated as "demolition" rather than "to demolish".
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| === CENʔO ===
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| '''cen@o''' = musterlist, people that you know, acquaintances, protagonist, list of characters in a play ... it is also the word used, for the vowel that is inserted immediately before the '''r''' in the r-form verb.
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... In the western linguistic tradition, these markers are said to represent "person" and "number". Person is either first, second or third person (i.e. I, you, he or she) and number refers to how the person changes when in the plural (sometimes dual also)
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| '''doikari''' = I walked
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| '''doikiri''' = You walked
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| '''doikori''' = He/She/It walked
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| '''doikuri''' = They walked
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| '''doikeri''' = You walked (this form is used when talking to more than one person)
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| '''doikauri''' = We walked (this form is used when the person spoken to, is not included in the "we")
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| '''doikairi''' = We walked (this form is used when the person spoken to, is included in the "we")
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| Note that the last form is used where in English you would use "you" or "one" (if you were a bit posh) ... as in "YOU do it like this", "ONE must do ONE'S best, mustn't ONE".
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... This pronoun is often called the "impersonal pronoun" or the "indefinite pronoun".
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| So we have 7 different forms for person and number.
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| === GWOMA ===
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| '''gwoma''' is a verb meaning "to modify", "to alter", "to change one attribute of something'". It is a verbal noun so '''gwoma''' also means "modification".
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| '''gwomai''' (modifications) has a special meaning in LIMBAWA linguistics ... namely the nine suffixes which give tense and aspect information.
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| Here are the '''gwomai''' in the order that they are traditionally given.
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| 1) '''doikari''' = I walked
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| This is the plain past tense. This is most often used when somebody is telling a story (a narrative). For example "Yesterday I got up, ate my breakfast and went to school". All three verbs in this narrative use the plain past tense.
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| 2) '''doikarta''' = I have walked
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| While logically this doesn't have much difference from 1), it is emphasising a state rather than an action. It represents the state at the time of speaking as the outcome of past events. We have this tense/aspect in English and it is realized as "have xxxxen". For example if you wanted to talk to John and you went to his office, his secretary might say "he has gone to lunch" (as opposed to "he went for lunch"), which emphasises the absence of John.
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| Another use for this tense is to show that something has happened at least once in the past. For example "I have been to London".
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| 3) '''doikarti''' = I had walked
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| This is similar to 2) except the time of relevance has shifted to the past. For example in a narrative if you wanted to explain the state of John at the party last night, you would say "When I met John, he had drunk eight cans of beer".
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| 4) '''doikartu''' = I will have walked
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| This is similar to 3) except the time of relevance has shifted to the future.
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| 5) '''doikaru''' = I will walk
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| This is the future tense. Of course you can never be 100% sure of the future. But (as in English) the future is dealt with in a similar way to the past.
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| 6) '''doikara''' = I walk
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| In English "I walk" is usually called the "present tense" however this is a bit unfortunate. This is the form hat expresses timeless truths ... for example "birds fly". You could say this is the "default" '''gwomai'''.
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| 7) '''doikarwi''' = I used to walk
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| '''doikarwi''' shows that you had many instances of walking in the past. For example "When I was a young girl, I used to walk 5 miles to school"
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| 8) '''doikarwa''' = I usually walk
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| Note that in translating "I walk" from English into LIMBAWA, you have a choice of '''doikarwa''' or '''doikara'''. Generally the '''doikarwa''' form should be used if your possible walking time is interspersed with periods of non-walking. '''donarwa''' could be translated as "sometimes I walk, and sometimes I choose not to walk" or even "I usually walk".
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| 9) '''doikarwu''' = I will walk, I will be walking
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| There is no exact equivalent to this on in English. Often confused with '''doikaru''' ( 5) ). Basically if the act of walking is just a one off ... for example in answer to the question "how are you going to the supermarket", '''doikaru''' would be used. But suppose that you had just moved to a new house, then the question "how will you get to the supermarket" is envisioning many instances of "walking" ... in that case, '''doikarwu''' would be used.
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| -----------------------------------
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| The above is an example of a "nuance" missing from English that LIMBAWA has. Below I give an example of a "nuance" that English has but which LIMBAWA lacks.
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| For example suppose two old friends from secondary school meet up again. One is a lot more muscular than before. He could explain his new muscles by saying "I have been working out". The "have" is appropriate because we are focusing on "state" rather than "action". The "am working out" is appropriate because it takes many instances of "working out" to build up muscles.
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| Every language has a limited range of ways to give nuances to an action, and language "A" might have to resort to a phrase to get a subtle idea across while language "B" has an obligatory little affix on the verb to economically express the exact same idea. You could swamp a language with affixes to exactly meet every little nuance you can think of (you would have an "everything but the kitchen sink" language). However in 99% of situations the nuances would not be needed and they would just be a nuisance.
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| (In Limbawa the muscle-bound schoolmate would probable use the "-rwa" form of the verb ; along with an adverb meaning "now")
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| -----------------------------------
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| Note ... if you say "I walk to church every Sunday" you have a choice of...
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| A) using '''doikarwa''' and dropping the Limbawa equivalent to "every".
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| B) using '''doikara''' and using the Limbawa equivalent to "every".
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With (A) implying that you ONLY go on Sunday, whereas (2) leaves open the possibility that you go on other days of as well.
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| -----------------------------------
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| These suffixes are given in the chart below. The LIMBAWA terms for the different rows and columns are given. In the Western Linguistic tradition we would have ;-
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| Time => tense Behind => past Middle => present (although most people agree this is an unfortunate term) Ahead => future
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| Aspect => aspect Completed => perfect Customary => habitual
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| [[Image:TW_gwomai_1.png]]
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| LIMBAWA shows the imperfective aspect by prefixing the verb with the particle '''bai''' (see the section on Serial Verb Construction, to find out the origin of this particle)
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| '''bai doikari''' = I was walking
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| '''bai doikara''' = I am walking
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| '''bai doikaru''' = I will be walking
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| The most common use for this is when you want to fit another action, inside the act of walking. For example "I was walking to school when it started to rain". Occasionally this form is used when you simply want to emphasis that the action took a long time (well in Limbawa anyway, not so much in English). For example "This morning I was walking 2 hours to school (because I sprained my ankle)".
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| ----------------------------- BELOW SOME RUBBISH
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| If the "modification" is something solid (something you can touch) then the form '''gwomo''' would be used. It is actually hard to draw the line between when '''gwoma''' should be used, and when '''gwomo''' should be used. But the linguistic usage falls just to the '''gwoma''' side of the line. Hence we talk about the Limbawa verb having 9 '''gwoma''' instead of 9 '''gwomo'''.
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| === TENKO ===
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| '''tenkai''' is a verb, meaning "to prove" or "to testify" or "to give evidence" or "to demonstrate".
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| '''tenko''' is a noun derived from the above, and means "proof" or "evidence".
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| About a quarter of the worlds languages have, what is called "evidentiality", expressed in the verb. (It is unknown in Europe so most people have never heard of it) In a language that has "evidentials" you can say (or you must say) on what evidence you are saying what you are saying. In Limbawa there are 3 evidential affixes which can optionally be added to the verb.
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| '''doikori''' = He walked ... this is the neutral verb. The speaker has decided not to tell on what evidence he is stating "he walked".
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| '''doikorin''' = They say he walked ... It this case the speaker is asserting "he walked" because somebody (or some people) have told him so.
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| '''doikoris''' = I guess he walked ... It this case the speaker is asserting "he walked" because he worked it out somehow. (Maybe in this case he had seen that the "he" had muddy boots, and so later told a third person "he walked".
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| The above 2 '''tenko''' are introducing some doubt, compared to the plain unadorned form ('''doikori'''). The third '''tenko''' on the contrary, introduced more certainty.
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| '''doikoria''' = I saw him walk ... In this case the speaked saw the action with his own eyes. This form can also be used if the speaker witnessed the action thru' another of his senses (maybe thru' hearing for example), but in the overwhelming majority of cases where this form is used, it means "I saw it myself". This '''tenko''' can only be used with the "i" '''gwoma'''
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| 7 cen@o (protagonist) which are obligatory.
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| 9 gwoma (modifiers) which are obligatory.
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| 3 tenko (proofs) which are optional.
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| ==..... LOGI==
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| [[Image:TW_number_11.png]]
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| Above right you can see the numbers 1 -> 11 displayed. Notice that the forms of 1, 6, 7 and 9 have been simplified before the "number bar" has been added.
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| In the bottom right you can see 7 interesting symbols. These are used to extend the range of the LIMBAWA number system (remember the basic system only covers 1-> 1727). Their meanings are given in the table below.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| elephant
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| |align=center| '''huŋgu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| rhino
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| |align=center| '''nàin'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| water buffalo
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| |align=center| '''wúa'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| circle
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| |align=center| '''omba'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| hare
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| |align=center| '''yanfa'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| beetle
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| |align=center| '''mulu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| bacterium, bug
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| |align=center| '''ʔiwetu'''
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| |}
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| To give you an idea of how they are used, I have given you a very big number below.
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| [[Image:TW_number_12.png]]
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| [[Image:TW_number_13.png]]
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| [[Image:TW_number_14.png]]
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| Which is => 1,206,8E3,051.58T,630,559,62 ... E represents eleven and T represents ten ... remember the number is in base 12.
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| O.K. this number has a ridiculous dynamic range. But this is for demonstration purposes only: if you can handle this number you can handle any number.
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| This monster would be pronounced '''aja huŋgu uvaila nàin ezaitauba wúa idauja omba idaizaupa yanfa elaibau mulu idaidauka ʔiwetu elaivau dó'''
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| Now the 7 "placeholders" are not really thought of as real numbers, they are markers only. The LIMBAWA community has a very strong feeling that there are only 1727 proper numbers. You never see (the LIMBAWA equivalent of) "a thousand" or "a million". Rather you would hear "ONE thousand exactly", or "ONE thousand approximately". (Actually I tell a lie, there are a number of sayings, where you can hear "ONE thousand" etc. etc.)
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| When first introduced to this system, many people think that the LIMBAWA culture must be untenable, however strangely enough the LIMBAWA culture has lasted many thousands of year, despite the obvious confusion that must arise when they attempt to count elephants.
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| One further point ...
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| If you wanted to express a number represented by digits 2->4 from the LHS of the monster, you would say '''aufaidaula nàin''' .... the same way as we have in the Western European tradition.
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| However if you wanted to express a number represented digits 6 ->8 from the RHS of the monster, you would say '''yanfa elaibau''' .... not the way we do it. This is like saying "milli 630" instead of "630 micro".
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| Ah that is another thing ... the units used either come at the end (or they can replace '''omba''' (which means "unit" as well as "circle", by the way)). Our SI system uses magnitude words which are prefixed to the unit of measurement (for example "kilo" in kilometre). LIMBAWA also has magnitude words (the seven already given) but they are inserted into the number itself. It is a bit similar to the way we use comma's to separate a long number string into groups of three digits.
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| Below some simple arithmetic operators are added. To make a number negative the "number bar" is placed on the left. Also a number can be made imaginary by adding a further stroke that touches the "number bar".
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| For addition there is no special sign for the "addition operation". The numbers are just written beside each other. Similarly with subtraction but one number will be negative this time.
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| There is a special sign to indicate multiplication (actually it is '''+''', the same as an "English" plus sign). The same sign is used for division, but in this case one of the numbers will be in "fraction form". You can see the "equals sign" below. Not much different from our one. Instead of using '''+''', the two quantities to be multiplied can instead be written side by side.
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| [[Image:TW_number_9.png]]
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| -6 is pronounced '''ù ela'''
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| 4i is pronounced '''aspo uga'''
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| -4i is pronounced '''ù aspo uga'''
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| -1/10 is pronounced '''ù miŋga iapa'''
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| i/4 could either be pronounced '''miŋga aspo uga''' or '''aspo mina uga''', it doesn't really matter.
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| ==..... SAINO==
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| '''saino''' = day
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| The LIMBAWA day begins at sunrise. 6 o'clock in the morning is called '''cuaju'''
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| The time of day is counted from '''cuaju'''. 24 hours is considered one unit. 8 o'clock in the morning would be called '''ajai''' (normally just called '''ajai''', but '''cúa ajai''' or '''ajai yanfa''' might also be heard sometimes).
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| 6 o'clock in the morning
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| |align=center| '''cuaju'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 8 o'clock in the morning
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| |align=center| '''ajai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 10 o'clock in the morning
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| |align=center| '''uvai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| midday
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| |align=center| '''ibai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 2 o'clock in the afternoon
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| |align=center| '''agai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 4 o'clock in the afternoon
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| |align=center| '''idai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 6 o'clock in the evening
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| |align=center| '''ulai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 8 o'clock in the evening
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| |align=center| '''icai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 10 o'clock at night
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| |align=center| '''ezai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| midnight
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| |align=center| '''okai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 2 o'clock in the morning
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| |align=center| '''apai'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| 4 o'clock in the morning
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| |align=center| '''atai'''
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| |}
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| Just for example, let us now consider the time between 4 and 6 in the afternoon.
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| 16:00 would be '''idai''' : 16:10 would be '''idaijau''' : 16:20 would be '''idaivau''' .... all the way up to .... 17:50 which would be '''idaitau
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| Now all these names have in common the element '''idai''', hence the period from 4 o'clock to 6 o'clock is called '''idaia''' (the plural of '''idai'''). This is exactly the same as us calling the period from 1960 -> 1969, "the sixties".
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| The perion from 6 o'clock to 8 o'clock in the morning is called '''cuajua'''. This is a back formation. People noticed that the two hour period after the point in time '''ajai''' was called '''ajaia'''(etc. etc.) and so felt that the two hour period after the point in time '''cuaju''' should be called '''cuajua'''. By the way, all points of time between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m. MUST have an initial '''cuaju'''. For example "ten past six in the morning" would be '''cuaju ajau''', "twenty past six" would be '''cuaju avau''' and so on.
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| If something happened in the period from 4 o'clock to 6 o'clock, it would be said to have happened '''idaia.pi'''
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| Usually you talk about points of time rather than periods of time. If you arrange to meet somebody at 2 o'clock morning, you would meet them '''apaiʔe'''.
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| But we refer to periods of time occasionally. If some action continued for 20 minutes, it will have continued '''nàn uvau''', for 2 hours : '''nàn ajai''' ('''nàn''' means "a long time")
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| In English we divide the day up into hours, minutes and seconds. In LIMBAWA they only have the '''yanfa'''. The '''yanfa''' is equivalent to 5 seconds. We would translate "moment" as in "just a moment" as '''yanfa''' also.
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| == The town clock ==
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| At midnight the ‘hour’ hand stands at the bottom and procedes anti-clockwise (at least in the northern hemishere). The ‘hour’ hand only sweeps out one revolution in 24 hours. Both the red and the black arms do not move incrementally but both move one slot (1/64 th of a revolution) at a time. The black arm moves every 22.5 minutes and the red arm moves every 21 seconds.
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| Every town has a clocktower and the clocktower will have six faces at the top, each face displaying a clock similar to the one below. The clocktower is surmounted by a green conic roof. Backlighting and lighting from under the roof is provided for each face. There should never be any numbering.
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| The clock faces should be illuminated from a light within. The colours of the faces should be white (N), orange (~NE), green (~SE), yellow (S), red (~SW), dark blue (~NW).
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| North ... orange, then sky blue, then yellow then dark blue (south), then red then green.
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| == The Calendar ==
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| [[Image:The_Calendar_3.png]]
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| The LIMBAWA calendar is interesting. Definitely interesting. A 73 day period is called a '''dói'''. 5 x 73 => 365.
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| The phases of the moon are totally ignored in the LIMBAWA system of keeping count of the time.
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| The first day of the '''dói''' is '''nelauja''' followed by '''hija''', then '''auja lozoja celaija''' and then '''aiva''' etc. etc. all the way upto '''kiʔoka'''.
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| The days to the right are workdays ('''saipito''') while the days to the left are days off work ('''saifuje'''). Each month has a special festival ('''hinta''') associated with it. These festivals are held in the three day period comprising '''lozoga, celaiga, helauga'''. The five "months" are named after the 5 planets that are visible to the naked eye. The 5 big festivals that occur every year are also named after these planets.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| mercury
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| |align=center| '''ʔoli'''
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| |align=center| Month 1
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| |align=center| '''doiʔoli'''
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| |align=center| Xmas... on 21,22,23 Dec
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| |align=center| '''hinʔoli'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| venus
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| |align=center| '''pwè'''
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| |align=center| Month 2
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| |align=center| '''doipwe'''
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| |align=center| festival on 4,5,6 Mar
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| |align=center| '''himpwe'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| mars
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| |align=center| '''gú'''
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| |align=center| Month 3
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| |align=center| '''doigu'''
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| |align=center| festival on 16,17,18 May
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| |align=center| '''hiŋgu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| jupiter
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| |align=center| '''gamazu'''
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| |align=center| Month 4
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| |align=center| '''doigamazu'''
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| |align=center| festival on 28,29,30 July
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| |align=center| '''hiŋgamazu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| saturn
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| |align=center| '''yika'''
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| |align=center| Month 5
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| |align=center| '''doiyika'''
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| |align=center| festival on 9,10,11 Oct
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| |align=center| '''hinyika'''
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| |}
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| '''hinʔoli''' ... This is the most important festival of the year. It celebrates the starting of a fresh year. It celebrates the stop of the sun getting weaker. It is centred on the family and friends that you are living amongst. Even though eating and drinking are involved in all the five festivals, this festival has the most looked-forward-to feasts.
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| '''himpwe''' ... People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various music and poetry competitions. Sky lanterns are usually released on the last day of this festival.
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| '''hiŋgu''' ... It is usual to get together with old friends around this time and many parties are held. Friends that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken to meet up with old acquainances. Also there is a big exchange of letters at this time. The most important happenings of the last year are stated in these letters along with hopes and plans for the coming year.
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| '''hiŋgamazu''' ... This festival is all about outdoor competitions and sporting events. It is a little like a cross between the Olympics games and the highland games. People gather at various regional centres to compete and spectate in various team and individual competitions. However care is taken that no regional centre becomes too popular and people are discouraged from competing at centres other than their local one.
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| '''hinyika''' ... Family that live some distance away are given special consideration. Often journeys are undertaken for family visits and ancestors ashboxes are visited if convenient. This is the second most important festival of the year. People often take extra time off work to travel, or to entertain guests. Fireworks are let of for a 2 hour period on the night of '''helauga'''. This is one of the few occasions where fireworks are allowed.
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| By the way, when a year changes, it doesn't change between months, it changes between '''lozoga''' and '''celaiga'''.
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| Every 4 years an extra day is added to the year. The '''doiʔoli''' gets a '''helauca'''.
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| LIMBAWA also has a 128 year cycle. This circle is called '''ombatoze'''. There is a animal associated with every year of the '''ombatoze'''.
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| These animals are ;-
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| {|
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| | wolf || weasel/ermine/stoat/mink || bullfinch || badger
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| |-
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| | whale || opossum || albatross || beautiful armadillo
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| |-
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| | giant anteater || lynx || eagle || cricket/grasshopper/locust
| |
| |-
| |
| | reindeer || springbok || dove || gnu/wildebeest
| |
| |-
| |
| | spider || Steller's sea cow || seagull || gorilla
| |
| |-
| |
| | horse || scorpion || raven/crow || python
| |
| |-
| |
| | rhino || yak || Kookaburra || porcupine ?
| |
| |-
| |
| | butterfly || triceratops || penguin || koala
| |
| |-
| |
| | polar bear || manta-ray || hornbill || raccoon
| |
| |-
| |
| | crocodile/alligator || wolverine || pelican || zebra
| |
| |-
| |
| | bee || warthog || peacock || capybara
| |
| |-
| |
| | bat || bear || crane/stork/heron || hedgehog
| |
| |-
| |
| | frog || lama || woodpecker || gemsbok
| |
| |-
| |
| | musk ox || chameleon || hawk || cheetah
| |
| |-
| |
| | lion || frill-necked lizard || toucan || okapi
| |
| |-
| |
| | dolphin || aardvark || ostrich || T-rex
| |
| |-
| |
| | kangaroo || hyena || duck || driprotodon(wombat)
| |
| |-
| |
| | shark || cobra || kingfisher || gaur
| |
| |-
| |
| | dragonfly || mole || moa || chimpanzee
| |
| |-
| |
| | turtle/tortoise || N.A. bison || black skimmer || panda
| |
| |-
| |
| | jaguar || snail || cormorant/shag || Cape buffalo
| |
| |-
| |
| | rabbit || colossal squid || vulture || glyptodon/doedicurus
| |
| |-
| |
| | beetle || seal || falcon || pangolin
| |
| |-
| |
| | megatherium || woolly mammoth || flamingo || baboon
| |
| |-
| |
| | elk/moose || squirrel || blue bird of paradise || lobster
| |
| |-
| |
| | tiger || gecko || grouse || seahorse
| |
| |-
| |
| | jackal/fox || octopus || swan || lemur
| |
| |-
| |
| | elephant || swordfish || parrot || auroch
| |
| |-
| |
| | giraffe || ant || puffin || iguana
| |
| |-
| |
| | mouse || crab || swift || mongoose/meerkat
| |
| |-
| |
| | smilodon || giant beaver || owl || mantis
| |
| |-
| |
| | camel || goat || hummingbird || walrus
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| Each of these animals above is a '''toze''', which can be translated as "token", "icon" or "totem ". '''omba''' means a circle or cycle. So you can see where the name for the 128 year period comes from.
| |
|
| |
| The very last '''helauca''' of every '''ombatoze''' is dropped.
| |
|
| |
| '''ombatoze''' is sometimes translated as "life", "generation" or "century"
| |
|
| |
| '''xxx''' means a 4 year period. It also means "calendar".
| |
|
| |
| ===The astronomical measurements upon which the LIMBAWA time system is based===
| |
|
| |
| Year 2000 had 365.242,192,65 days
| |
|
| |
| Every year is shorter than the last by 0.000,000,061,4 days
| |
|
| |
| By adding one day every 4 years we get a 365.25 day year
| |
|
| |
| If we then drop one day every '''ombatoze''' we get a 365.242,187,5 day year (actually very close to the actual year length)
| |
|
| |
| Before 2084, the actual year will be bigger than the calendar year – after 2084 the actual year will be smaller than the calendar year
| |
|
| |
| For this reason midnight, 22 Dec 2083 is designated the fulcrum of the whole system. That day will be time zero.
| |
|
| |
| At the moment we are in negative time.
| |
|
| |
| === Some Rubbish ===
| |
|
| |
| Two consonants can appear together at the beginning and middle of a word. The various combinations that are allowed at these two positions are stated later (see '''juzmi'''). Only two consonants are allowed word finally. These are '''n''' and '''s'''.
| |
|
| |
| The vowels '''ia''' and '''ua''' can only occur in the final syllable of a word. If a suffix is added, making either '''ia''' or '''ua''' occur in a non-word-final syllable, then they must change to '''ya''' and '''wa''' respectively. However these changes can occur only in certain circumstances, depending on the consonant to the left of the '''y''' or '''w''' (refer to the table in the '''juzmia @aba''' section to see what combinations are acceptable). If the change to '''ya''' or '''wa''' is not allowed, then they both change to a simple '''a'''.
| |
|
| |
| ----------
| |
|
| |
| Word structure "nandau"
| |
|
| |
| All '''nandau''' are what are called "content words"⁕ (LINGUISTIC JARGON). They are words like "house', or "run" or "beautiful" that have a definite meaning embedded in themselves.
| |
|
| |
| -----------
| |
|
| |
| Each '''pyabu''' is defined by 3 '''juzmia'''.
| |
|
| |
| '''juzmi''' can be translated as "gesture", "a definite movement given a meaning by socially agreed convention", it also is used for the three parts that define a '''pyabu'''.
| |
|
| |
| The three parts are '''juzmi @aba''' (the first gesture), '''juzmi @iga''' (the second gesture) and '''juzmi @oda''' (the third gesture).
| |
|
| |
| The rule for determining what is a '''nandau''' and what is not (and by definition "what is not" => '''yadau'''), is that there must be one, and ONLY one '''jwavo''' in the three gestures.
| |
|
| |
| '''jwavo''' = "molecule made from more than one element" or "consonant cluster" or "diphthong"
| |
|
| |
| ⁕A small number of '''yadau''' are also "content words". Invariable they are very common words. For example '''dunu''' "brown" or '''hiaᴴ''' "red".
| |
|
| |
| -----------
| |
|
| |
| ⁕⁕⁕It is thought that when multiplication tables were invented, a name for each "entry" was sought. The adoption of '''pyabu''' came about thru analogy to a fishing net (multiplication tables are called "multiplication nets" by the way). The word later spread to 1D systems (i.e. items on a list) and to 3D systems (well the '''nandauli''' is one example)
| |
|
| |
| ⁕⁕⁕⁕By the way '''kyamo''' = "molecule made from only one element" or "geminate" or "long vowel" (where long vowels contrast with short vowels to produce minimal pairs)
| |
|
| |
| .... the first element "juzmia @aba"
| |
|
| |
| There are 37 '''juzmia @aba'''. Some of them are "kolta" (consonants in this case) and some of them are '''jwavo'''(meaning consonant clusters in this case). All the '''juzmia @aba''' are "complex sounds"(consonant or consonant clusters).
| |
|
| |
| -------------
| |
|
| |
| .... the second element "juzmia @iga"
| |
|
| |
| There are 9 '''juzmia @iga'''. Some of them are '''kolta''' (vowels in this case) and some of them are '''jwavo''' (diphthongs in this case). All '''juzmia @iga''' are "simple sounds"(vowels or diphthongs).
| |
|
| |
| The '''juzmia @iga''' order is '''e, eu, u, au, a, ai, i, oi, o'''
| |
|
| |
| .... the third element "juzmia @oda"
| |
|
| |
| There are 58 '''juzmia @oda'''. Some of them are "single sounds" (consonants) and some of them are '''jwavo''' (consonant clusters in this case). All the '''juzmia @oda''' are "complex sounds"(consonant or consonant clusters).
| |
|
| |
| ----------------
| |
|
| |
| Most '''yadau''' are what are called "particles" in linguistics. These are the short words such as "the", "to", "because" that impart meaning to the '''nandaua''' around them, or specify the relation between two '''nandaua''', or add a certain nuance/meaning to the whole utterance.
| |
|
| |
| Examples of '''yadau''' are '''foi''' that is cliticized to the end of the first word of a sentence (thereby turning the sentence into a question). And '''mo''' which goes directly in front of a verb and negates the whole utterance. All the pronouns are also '''yadaua'''. All affixes⁕ also.
| |
|
| |
| All words that are not a '''nandau''' are either ''' yadau''' or '''yauyadau'''. '''yadau''' are mono-syllabic and possess either a high tone or a low tone. '''yauyadau''' are poly-syllabic and have neutral tone.
| |
|
| |
| ⁕In Limbawa an affix is called a "part yadau" (as opposed to all the non-affixes which are called "whole yadau")
| |
|
| |
| ---------------
| |
|
| |
| The '''juzmia @oda''' order is '''l@, lm ... ln, lh, @, m ... n, h, n@, ny ... mw, nh, s@, zm ... zn, sh'''
| |
|
| |
| ----------------
| |
|
| |
| If you look in the '''nandauli'''⁕⁕ (dictionary) you will get a form such as '''hend-'''. This is what is also called a '''pyabu'''.
| |
|
| |
| Actually the original meaning of '''pyabu'''⁕⁕⁕ was "knot". It's meaning then spread to "entry" (in a ledger for example) or "item" (in a list for example). Then it spread to such forms as '''hend-'''. If you add a tail to a '''pyabu''' you get a '''nandau'''. For example '''henda''' = "to wear" is a '''nandau''', or '''hendo''' = "an item of clothing'" is also a '''nandau'''
| |
|
| |
| -------------------
| |
