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| == Three Untypical Verbs - "sau", "gaza" and "bia" ==
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| ==="sau"===
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| '''sau''' is a special verb. When it comes to ''tense/aspect'' markers ( 'modifiers'), '''sau''' keeps the 12 (( .... part (way ??) ... division of an angle ... nuance .... )), the same as a regular verb, however the meaning is skewed somewhat in 9 cases(instances) and the form is wildly irregular in the other three cases.
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| The '''w'''-modifiers (habitual aspect) can interpreted as "to be usually/generally".
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| The '''l'''-modifiers (progressive aspect) can interpreted as "is in this state but must continually strive to keep in this state" or even "to try and be".
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| The '''t'''-modifiers (perfect aspect) ... well for a normal verb this form emphasises "state". When used with '''sau''' the emphasis is skewed towards "reason".
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| The meaning of 9 of these 'angle intervals' is skewed. For 3 ((angles)) the meanings are spot-on, however the forms are wildly irregular.
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| Let's go over all the forms(( .... part (way ??) ... division of an angle ... nuance .... ))
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| ==== Past time ====
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| '''sari boi.''' = I usually was good
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| '''sari boi.''' = I was being good (but it took effort on my part)
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| '''*sari boi.''' = I was good
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| '''sari boi.''' = I had been good (so the teacher gave me a gold star)
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| ==== Future time ====
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| '''sarwu boi.''' = I will be good (mostly)
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| '''*saru boi.''' = I will be good
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| '''sarlu boi.''' = I will be good (hopefully)
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| '''sartu boi.''' = I will have been good
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| ==== Present time ====
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| '''sarla boi.''' = "I am good but it is difficult" or "I try and be good"
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| '''sarwa boi.''' = I am generally good
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| '''sara boi.''' = I have been good
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| Their house '''sarwa''' dirty but today clean.
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| ==== Timeless ====
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| '''*sar boi.''' = I am good
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| ==== The wild forms ====
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| In the above, you will see 3 forms that are marked by an asterix. The asterix means that these forms don't exist.
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| These 3 forms that don't exist are '''*sari''', '''*saru''' and '''*sar'''
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| Instead they are realised as '''ri''', '''ru''' and '''ro'''
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| Notice that the protagonist part ??? is not included in these forms. Hence it is necessary to have a pronoun when using these forms.
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| For example ;-
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| '''sorlu boi.''' = He will try and be good ... The subject is indicated by the '''o''' in the verb.
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| ''' no ru boi.''' = He will be good ... The subject is not expressed in the verb, so it must be expressed by a pronoun ('''no''' = he or she)
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| In fact '''ro''' is usually dropped completely.
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| '''no boi.''' = He is good
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| It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim
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| Person A) ... '''gi mo ro moltai''' = You aren't a doctor
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| Person b) ... '''pa ro moltai''' = I am a doctor
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| Notice that '''ro''' is always used when you have '''mo''' the negative particle. This particle must always be directly in front of a verb, so '''ro''' must be expressed.
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| Another situation where '''ro''' tends to be used is when the subject or the copula complement are long trains of words. For example ????????
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| The evidentials are appended to the wild forms as normal. So we have '''ron''', '''ros''', '''rin''', '''ria''', '''ris''', '''run''', '''rus''',
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| === "gaza" ===
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| '''gaza''' takes only one noun. It is how you say "there is ... "
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| '''gaza''' is similar to '''sau''' in that it takes the 12 verb modifiers but 3 of them are wildly irregular. It is the same 3 tense/aspect forms that are irregular. Namely ;-
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| '''*gazor''' => '''@a.''' meaning "there is"
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| '''*gazori''' => '''@ai.''' meaning "there was"
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| '''*gazoru''' => '''@au.''' meaning "there will be"
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| Actually while theoretically '''gaza''' can have the full range of modifiers enjoyed by a normal verb, in reality all forms other than '''@a.''', '''@ai.''' and '''@au.''' are extremely rare. Occasionally you come across the "infinitive" '''gaza''' (which is actually as a noun).
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| There is no word that corresponds to "have". The usual way to say "I have a coat" is "there exists a coat mine" = '''@a. kaunu pan'''
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| For some reason the internal possessives are not allowed with '''gaza'''. That is you can not say '''@aᴴ kaunapu''', but must say '''@aᴴ kaunu pan'''
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| As I said above, '''gaza''' always comes with one noun. If it comes with an adjective, then that adjective can be considered a noun (well this is one way to look at it)
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| '''pona''' = cold (an adjective), '''ponahe''' = coldness (a noun)
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| '''@a. pona''' = "it is cold" ... not '''*@a. ponahe'''
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| '''@a. pona pan''' meaning "I feel cold" (word for word ... "there is coldness mine")
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| There is fixed word order : it is always '''gaza''' followed by the noun.
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| A little quirk of this verb, is that the negation particle '''mo''' comes immediately after instead of immediately before.
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| '''@a. mo pona''' = "it is not cold"
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| The particles '''loi.''' (probably) and '''mas''' (maybe) come as normal, before the verb.
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| '''loi. @au. pona''' = It will probably be cold
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| Also the evidentials are affixed to the wild forms. Just as with '''sau'''.
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| '''loi. @aun. mo pona''' = They say it will probably not be cold
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| '''loi.foi @aun. mo pona''' = Do they say it will probably not be cold ?
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| === "bia" ===
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| '''bia''' means "to be at"
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| For example '''polo bori london''' = Paul was in London
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| '''auto bor. greta''' = The car is in the street.
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| '''pele boru briga''' = Paula will be at home
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| '''bia.''' is the rarest of the copulas and has no irregular forms.
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| It is often supplanted by '''sau''' ... but if this happens a locative particle must be suffixed to the noun (the noun after the copula). For example ;-
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| '''polo ri london.pi''' = Paul was in London
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| '''auto (ro) greta.la''' = The car was in the street (literally "on the street")
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| '''pele ru briga.do''' = Paula will be at home
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| The three verbs '''sau''', '''gasa''' and '''bia.''' are special verbs. (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... They are called copulas... in Latin "copulare" meant "to tie", so a copula is a verb that ties. The appropriateness of this is obvious for '''sau''' and '''bia''') In Limbawa they differ from normal verbs, in that they require a specific word order. Also '''s''' is never suffixed to a noun, as normally happens when a verb is associated with two nouns.
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| == Other Verb Forms==
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| Above we have discussed the R-form of the verb.
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| However there are other verb forms.
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| ===S-Form===
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| This is the subjunctive form. You change the "'''r'''" to an '''"s'''" basically. Nothing comes after the "'''s'''". So there is no tense/aspect or evidentiality expressed on this verb form.
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| '''doikais''' = Let's walk
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| ===ME-Form===
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| This form is used when one action is dependant on another action having taken place.
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| As with the s-form, there is no '''gwomai''' or evidentiality expressed on the verb.
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| ===MI-Form===
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| The same as the me-form but irrealis. With the me-form there is doubt as to when (and indeed if) the thunder/lightning will happen.
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| With the mi-form it is accepted that there is no chance of thunder/lightning ... the storm has passed.
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| ===YA-Form===
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| This form is used for giving orders. When the s-form is used in a main clause, it is gently urging some action. With the ya-form you definitely want some action to happen (and you don't expect a discussion about it).
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| Up until now, 7 protagonists have been expressed in every verb. With the ya-form however only two protagonists can be expressed.
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| '''doikiya''' = walk (when talking to one person)
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| '''doikeya''' = walk (when talking to more than one person)
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| An alternative way to analyse this is to say that there is an '''iya'''-form and an '''eya'''-form. How you choose to analyse it doesn't make any difference to the reality of the situation.
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| ===AI-Form===
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| This is used for when two or more verbs are happening simultaneously. He second verb is the '''gamba''' shorn of its last vowel (or diphthong) and with '''ai''' stuck on.
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| pass'''orli''' sing'''ai''' = He is passing by singing
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| You can add as many verbs as you want. The added verbs are understood to have the same protagonists, '''gwomai''' and evidentiality as the r-form verb (or the s-form verb) (or the ??? )
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| pass'''orla''' sing'''ai''' kite '''fly'''ai = He is passing by singing and flying a kite
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| It is very common to have the following verbs in their ai-form.
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| = to be at ('''bia''') ... this can be interpreted in English as "still" ... or as "not yet" in negative sentences. For example ;- pass'''orla''' '''bai''' = "he is still passing by"
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| = to come
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| = to go
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| = to rise
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| = to descend
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| = to enter
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| = to go out
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| = to return
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| = to do something in a haphazard manner, to do something in an unsatisfactory manner
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| = to hurry
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| The above are often stuck on the end of an utterance ... like a sort of afterthought. They give the utterance a bit more clarity ... a bit more resolution.
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| == The 13 pilanagu==
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| These are what in LINGUISTIC JARGON is called "cases".
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| The word '''pilanagu''' is built up from ;-
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| '''pila''' = to place, to position
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| '''pilana''' = positioning (this is an adjective made from '''pil''' + '''ana''', in LINGUISTIC JARGON it is called a "present participle")
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| '''pilanagu''' = the positioner (i.e. the thing that is positioning ... by the way '''pilanabo''' = the person that is positioning)
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| Actually only 2 of these forms can be said to live 100 % up to their names. But never the less, the whole set of 13 are called '''pilanagu'''
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| 1) '''pi''' = in
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| 2) '''la''' = on
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| 3) '''su''' = to
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| 4) '''fi''' = from
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| 5) '''alzo''' = onto
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| 6) '''alfe''' = off
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| 7) '''-s''' ... the "ergative marker'''
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| 8) '''-n''' ... the "genitive marker"
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| 9) '''do''' = at
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| 10) '''ho''' = with
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| 11) '''@u''' = with/by ... the instrumental marker
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| 12) '''wa''' = "with respect to"
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| 13) '''yo''' ... "the dative marker"
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| These markers are stuck on the end of the noun phrase if the noun phrase is a single word. If the noun phrase comprises more than one word, then these markers are "stand alone" preposition. When 5) and 6) are affixed, the '''a''' is dropped.
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| === '''pi''' ===
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| === '''la''' ===
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| === '''su''' ===
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| === '''fi''' ===
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| === '''alzo''' ===
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| === '''alfe''' ===
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| === '''s''' ===
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| === '''n''' ===
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| === '''do''' ===
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| === '''ho''' ===
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| === '''@u''' ===
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| === '''wa''' ===
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| === '''yo''' ===
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| == Three Infixes ==
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| Limbawa has a three process for generating new verbs from existing verbs.
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| These three processes can be done to any verb.
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| === '''el''' ===
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| If you split a verb and insert '''el''' between the final vowel (of the '''gamba''') and the rest of the word, you give the added meaning of "to begin", "inception" or "to start off". For example ;-
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| '''sau''' = to be
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| '''selau''' = to become
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| '''bia.''' = to be at
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| '''belia''' = to arrive at
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| '''doika''' = to walk
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| '''doikela''' = to start to walk
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| '''logo doikorwi''' = Roger used to walk ...
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| '''logo doikelorwi''' = Roger used to start walking ...
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| '''gaselari''' = I was born
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| '''a ri ki@o''' = it was yellow ... remember that '''ri''' is an irregular form. The regular form would be '''*sori'''.
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| '''a lori ki@o''' = it became yellow ... '''selau''' is irregular. If it were regular we would have the form '''*a selori ki@o'''
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| So there are thee irregular verbs in Limbawa (well if you count '''selau''' as a different word from '''sau''') ... '''sau''', '''bia''' and '''selau'''.
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| === '''ow'''===
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| If you split a verb and insert '''ow''' between the final vowel of and the rest of the word, you get the meaning that you are making somebody else do the verb. For example ;-
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| '''no timpiri''' = you hit him
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| '''(pas.) gis. no timpowari''' = I made you hit him
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| A '''gamba''' form exists for this construction also. For example;-
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| '''doikowo''' = to make (somebody) walk
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| '''gasowa''' has the special meaning "to give birth" and doesn't mean "to create".
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| ==='''ay'''===
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| If you split a verb and insert '''ay''' between the final vowel of and the rest of the word, you get the meaning that the verb is being attempted. For example ;-
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| '''selbaru a''' = I will drink it
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| '''selbayaru a''' = I will try and drink it
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| ==Three Prefixes==
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| ===Two for Noun => Noun===
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| '''ju.xxxx''' = a mansion
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| '''ti.xxxx''' = a cottage
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| ===One for Adj. => Adj.===
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| '''ukaya''' = few
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| '''umutu''' = unimportant
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| == Pronouns ==
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| Limbawa is what is called an ergative language. About a quarter of the world languages are ergative or partly ergative. So let us explain what ergative means. Well in English we have 2 forms of the first person singular pronoun ... namely "I" and "me". Also we have 2 forms of the third person singular male pronoun ... namely "he" and "him". These two forms help determine who does what to whom. For example "I hit him" and "He hit me" have obviously different meanings (in English there is a fixed word order, which also helps. In Limbawa the word order is free).
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| '''timpa''' = to hit ... '''timpa''' is a verb that takes two nouns (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb).
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| '''pas. no timpari''' = I hit him
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| '''pa nos. timpori''' = He hit me ... OK in this case the protagonist marking in the verb also helps to make things disambiguous. But this will not always help, for example when both protagonists are third person singular.
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| So far so good. And we see that English and Limbawa behave in the same way so far. But what happens when we take a verb that takes only one noun (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... a transitive verb). For example '''dono''' = "to walk". In English we have "he walked". However in Limbawa we don't have '''*nos. donori''' but '''no donori''' (equivalent to saying "*him walked" in English). So this in a nutshell is what an ergative language is.
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| If you like you can say ;-
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| In English "him" is the "done to" : "he" is the "doer" and the "doer to".
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| In Limbawa '''no''' is the "done to" and the "doer" : '''nos.''' is the "doer to".
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| Below are two tables showing the two forms of the Limbawa pronouns.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| I
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| |align=center| '''pas.'''
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| |align=center| we (includes "you")
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| |align=center| '''yuas.'''
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| we
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| |align=center| '''wias.'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| you
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| |align=center| '''gis.'''
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| |align=center| you (plural)
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| |align=center| '''jes.'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| he, she
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| |align=center| '''nos.'''
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| |align=center| they
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| |align=center| '''nus.'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| it
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| |align=center| '''as.'''
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| |align=center| they
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| |align=center| '''as.'''
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| |}
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| me
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| |align=center| '''pa'''
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| |align=center| us
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| |align=center| '''yua'''
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| us
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| |align=center| '''wia'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| you
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| |align=center| '''gi'''
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| |align=center| you (plural)
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| |align=center| '''je'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| him, her
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| |align=center| '''no'''
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| |align=center| them
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| |align=center| '''nu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| it
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| |align=center| '''a'''
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| |align=center| them
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| |align=center| '''a'''
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| |}
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| There could be another member it the above table. When a action is performed by somebody on themselves, a special particle '''ti.''' is used.
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| Just as in English, we do not say "*I hit me", but "I hit myself" ... in Limbawa we do not say '''*pas. pa timpari''', but '''pas. ti. timpari'''.
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... "myself" is what is called a "reflexive pronoun". In English there are many reflexive pronouns (i.e. "myself", "yourself", "herself", etc. etc.) : in Limbawa only one.
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| One other point ... Limbawa has generally a pretty free word order. But in a sentence such as '''jene ti. laudori''' (Jane washed herself) it would be pretty unusual to have the '''ti.''' before '''jene'''
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| == relating one noun to another noun ==
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| The particle '''na''' before a noun makes a sort of adjective construction (which is used to describe another noun). For example '''kolo na kaunu di.''' = "the collar of this coat".
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| The particle '''ni''' before a noun, behaves in a similar way. However with '''ni''' the meaning is strictly "possession" and the noun must be human. For example '''kaunu hia ni jene''' = Jenny's red coat
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| When the noun is a single word (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... that is when it is a simple noun instead of what is called "a noun phrase". '''kaunu di''' and '''kaunu hia''' are two example of what is called a "noun phrase". '''kaunu hia di''' "this red coat" is another example) -'''n''' can be stuck on to the end of a word (instead of '''na''' or '''ni''' going before the word) to give an adjective.
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| So instead of saying '''kolo na kaunu''' we would say '''kolo kaunun'''
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| Instead of saying '''kaunu ni jane''' we would say '''kaunu jenen'''
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| (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... In the above 2 examples '''kaunu''' and '''jane''' would be said to be in the genitive case. Many languages have a similar system, particularly in European)
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| When the noun is a pronoun the same thing happens. As in Limbawa it is extremely rare for a pronoun to appear in a noun phrase ...
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| '''*kaunu ni pa''' => '''kaunu pan''' ... '''*ni pa''' is not allowed and the form '''pan''' must be used. We call '''pan''' a possessive pronoun (more LINGUISTIC JARGON)
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| Below is a table showing the Limbawa possessive pronouns ;-
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| mine
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| |align=center| '''pan'''
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| |align=center| ours
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| |align=center| '''yuan'''
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| ours
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| |align=center| '''wian'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| yours
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| |align=center| '''gin'''
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| |align=center| yours (plural)
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| |align=center| '''jen'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| his, hers
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| |align=center| '''non'''
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| |align=center| theirs
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| |align=center| '''nun'''
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| |}
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| === possessive pronouns and "gamba" ===
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| This is a special construction that relates pronouns to the infinitive form of the verb (or the '''gamba''' form as we say in Limbawa). For example ;-
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| '''wi.''' = to see '''polo''' = Paul '''timpa''' = to hit '''jene''' = Jenny
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| '''wori timpa polon''' = He saw paul hitting
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| '''wori timpa na jene''' = He saw Jenny being hit
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| '''wori timpa polon na jene''' = He saw Paul hitting Jenny ... it is actually pronounced as '''wori timpa polonna jene''' with the -'''nn'''- pronounced the same way as you would pronounce -nn- in the English word "keanness".
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| In the above constructions the word order must be as shown above. Also the gamba can never be split and an infix inserted (see next section).
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| === ... 7 or 8 noun infixes ===
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| In fact instead of saying '''kaunu pan''' (if you came across '''kaunu pan''' in isolation you would normally take it as meaning '''kaunu ro pan''' = "the coat is mine") it is usual to bury the possessor inside the noun as an infix. So '''kaunu pan''' is usually expressed as '''kaunapu'''.
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| Below is a table showing the possessor infix paradigm.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| my coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunapu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| our coat ("our" includes "you")
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| |align=center| '''kaunayu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| our coat ("our excludes "you")
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| |align=center| '''kaunawu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| your coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunigu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| your coat (with "you" being plural)
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| |align=center| '''kauneju'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| his/her coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunonu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| their coat
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| |align=center| '''kaununu'''
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| |}
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| It can be seen that the infixes are the same as the plain pronouns, but the order of the consonant and vowel are swapped over.
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| There could also be another entry in the table above. That is the infix '''-it-''' (this is the possessive equivalent of the reflexive pronoun '''ti.''' (see above). It is probably easiest to explain '''-it-''' by way of example;-
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| '''polo pretoru @autito''' = Paul will drive his car (In English we would normally interpret this to mean "Paul will drive his own car". In Limbawa '''polo pretoru @autito''' must ALWAYS be interpreted as such.
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| '''polo pretoru @autono''' = Paul will drive his car (In English, this COULD be interpreted as "Paul will drive someone else's car". In Limbawa '''polo pretoru @autono''' would always be interpreted as such.
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| ==ki- and we-==
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| The '''we''' prefix produces adverbs (from both adjectives and nouns).
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| '''wesaco''' = quickly ... actually if '''saco''' came immediately after the verb it was qualifying, it would always just be plain '''saco'''. However as the form '''we.saco''' the adverb can move around the utterance ... wherever it wants to go.
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| When '''we''' is prefixed to a noun, it can not be dropped if the resulting adverb immediately follows the verb.
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| '''deuha''' = soldier
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| doikor wedeuha''' = he walk like a soldier
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| The '''ki''' prefix produces adjectives (from both nouns and adjectives).
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| '''ki.gla''' = effeminate
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| '''ki.bau''' = butch ... slightly negative connotations for most of these ones.
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| '''hia''' = red
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| '''kihia''' = reddish
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