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| == Tense and Aspect ==
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| '''dono''' = to walk
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| '''donari''' = I walked
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| '''donarli''' = I was walking
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| '''donarwi''' = I used to walk
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| '''donarti''' = I had walked
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| '''donarla''' = I am walking
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| '''donarwa''' = I walk
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| '''donara''' = I have walked
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| Note ... There is no form '''donarta'''. You would expect '''donarta''', but this has been "eroded" down to '''donara''' thru' much use.
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| Note ... The form '''donarwa''' is used if you habitually walk in the past, the present and there is no reason to suppose that you will not do so in the future. It doesn't imply that you are actually walking at the speech-act-time
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| '''donaru''' = I will walk
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| '''donarlu''' = I will be walking
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| '''donarwu''' = I will walk
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| '''donartu''' = I will have walked
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| Note ... The form '''donaru''' is used if the act of walking is just a one off ... for example in answer to the question "how are you going to the supermarket". But suppose that you had just moved house and the question "how will you get to the supermarket" is envisioning many instances of "walking" ... then the proper response would be '''donarwu'''.
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| '''donar''' = I walk
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| Note that in translating "I walk" from English you have a choice of '''donarwa''' or '''donar'''. Generally the "-RWA" form should be used if your possible walking time is interspersed with periods of non-walking. '''donarwa''' could be translated as "sometimes I walk, and sometimes I choose not to walk" or even "I usually walk".
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| Note ... if you say "I walk to church every Sunday" you have a choice of...
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| 1) using '''donarwa''' and dropping the Limbawa equivalent to "every".
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| 2) using '''donar''' and using the Limbawa equivalent to "every".
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| 1) implies that you ONLY go on Sunday
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| 2) leaves open the possibility that you go to church on other days of the week also.
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| The "-R" form is used to present general truths. For example, in says "birds fly", you would use the "-R" form.
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| So we have 12 different forms for tense and aspect.
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... tense basically means time and in my system we have past tense "I", present "A" and future "U" tenses.
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| ... aspect in more difficult to explain ... but you can see from the examples, how the different aspects change how the verb relates to the rest of the text/sentence. In Limbawa, three aspects are included in the verb word. These are continuous "L"
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| , habitual "W" and perfect "T".
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| == Person and Number ==
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| '''donari''' = I walked
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| '''doniri''' = You walked
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| '''donori''' = He/She/It walked
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| '''donuri''' = They walked
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| '''doneri''' = You walked (this form is used when talking to more than one person)
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| '''donauri''' = We walked (this form is used when the person spoken to, is not included in the "we")
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| '''donairi''' = We walked (this form is used when the person spoken to, is included in the "we")
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| Note that the last form is used where in English you would use "you" or "one" (if you were a bit posh) ... as in "YOU do it like this", "ONE must do ONE'S best, mustn't one".
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... This pronoun is often called the "impersonal pronoun" or the "indefinite pronoun".
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| So we have 7 different forms for person and number.
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| == Evidentiality ==
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| About a quarter of the words languages have, what is called "evidentiality" expressed in the verb. That is you can say (or you must say) on what evidence you are saying what you are saying. In Limbawa there are 3 evidentials which can optionally be added to the verb.
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| '''donori''' = He walked
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| '''donorin''' = They say he walked
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| '''donoria''' = I saw him walk
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| '''donoris''' = I guess he walked
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| The "A" form is only used with the past tense. We can call the the "IA" form.
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ...These 3 evidential forms would usually be called the "reported", "seen" and "inferred" forms.
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| == Pronouns ==
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| I
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| |align=center| '''pas'''
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| |align=center| we (includes "you")
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| |align=center| '''yuas'''
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| |align=center| me
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| |align=center| '''pa'''
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| |align=center| us
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| |align=center| '''yua'''
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| |-
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| we
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| |align=center| '''wias'''
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center|
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| |align=center| us
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| |align=center| '''wia'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| you
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| |align=center| '''gis'''
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| |align=center| you (plural)
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| |align=center| '''jes'''
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| |align=center| you
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| |align=center| '''gi'''
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| |align=center| you (plural)
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| |align=center| '''je'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| he, she
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| |align=center| '''nos'''
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| |align=center| they
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| |align=center| '''nus'''
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| |align=center| him, her
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| |align=center| '''no'''
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| |align=center| them
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| |align=center| '''nu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| it
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| |align=center| '''as'''
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| |align=center| they
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| |align=center| '''as'''
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| |align=center| it
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| |align=center| '''a'''
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| |align=center| them
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| |align=center| '''a'''
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| |}
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| As seen above ... LIMBAWA has 2 cases : the ergative (-S) and the absolutive (- ). For citation, after a preposition or in copula clauses it is always the unmarked case that is used
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| Common prepositions
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| '''da''' ... at '''ne''' ... for
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| '''kaunu''' ... a coat
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| my coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunapu'''
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| |align=center| our coat ("our" includes "you")
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| |align=center| '''kaunayu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| our coat ("our excludes "you")
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| |align=center| '''kaunawu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| your coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunigu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| your coat (with "you" being plural)
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| |align=center| '''kauneju'''
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| |align=center| his/her coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunonu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| their coat
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| |align=center| '''kaununu'''
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| |}
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| '''na''' before a noun makes a genitive construction and the whole thing can be considered an adjective. For example '''kolo na kaunu''' ... the collar of the coat/the coat's collar.
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| '''ni''' before a noun makes a genitive construction and the whole thing can be considered an adjective. However in this case the meaning is strictly "possession" and the noun must be human. When the noun is a pronoun we get a a special possessive form. For example NI PA'''ni pa''' doesn't occur but we get '''pan'''
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| '''pan''' ... mine
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| '''yuan''' ... ours
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| '''wian''' ... ours
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| '''gin''' ... yours
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| '''jen''' ... yours
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| '''non''' ... his/hers
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| '''don''' ... theirs
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| Use the same pattern for demonstratives ?
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| i.e. '''kaunu de''' ... that coat '''den''' ... that
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| '''dade''' ... there
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| '''dai''' ... here
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| == the copula's ==
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| For existence use '''gasa'''
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| For identity use '''sau'''
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| For attribute use '''sau''' or '''bia'''
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| For location use '''bia'''
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| Notice that an attribute can be introduced by either '''sau''' or '''bia''' Basically '''sau''' introduced a characteristic feature and '''bia''' introduces a temporary state. (page 175)
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| House dirty He sick
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| If no T.A.M. information or emphasis on the copula, the copula '''sau''' is always dropped.
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| In fact, while transitive and intransitive sentences have free word order, '''sau''' and '''bia''' (plus '''belia''' and '''selau''') sentences have a fixed ordering of components.
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| '''sau''' ...
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| '''sau''' and '''gasa''' are irregular. If aspect and evidentuality are unmarked, then the person is not expressed in the verb either. That is, there are 3 depleted forms of '''sau''' : '''ro''', '''ri''', '''ru''' and and 3 depleted forms of '''gasa''' : !A, !AI , !AU . These six words are extremely common.
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| RO ... am, are, is RI ... was, were RU ... will be
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| !A ... there is, there are !AI ... there was, there were !AU ... there will be
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| SELBO DI RO JEU ... this drink ? is cold (the copula is simply R which is a cliticized to the end of the noun phrase)
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| KAUNIGA furN RI BOI ... Your fur coat was good
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| KAUNIGA furN RO BOI ... Your fur coat is good
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| SAU in the form RO is normally dropped. This form most often occurs to refute a claim.
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| GI MO RO MOLTAI ... You are not a doctor
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| PA RO MOLTAI .... I am a doctor (emphatic)
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| RO also tends to be used if the subject or the copula complement are long trains of words for example ????????
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| KAUNIGA MO RO BOI ... your coat is no good
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| KAUNAPA RO BOI ... my coat is good
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| KAUNAPA BOI YA .... YA being an emphatic particle
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| 2+3 = 5 .... Obviously we can not use the copula for "="
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| Simplest (Present Tense) of course the pronoun can not be dropped.
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| PA RO JUTU ... I am big ... PA JUTU
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| GI RO JUTU ... you are big ... GI JUTU
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| NO RO JUTU ... he/she/it is big ... NO JUTU
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| Tenses included Aspects included
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| PA RU JUTU ... I will be big SARUA JUTU ... I will have been good
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| PA RI JUTU ... I was big SARIA JUTU ... I had been big
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| PA RO JUTU ... I am big SARA JUTU ... I have been big
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| Apart from the 3 constructions (above right), aspect does not combine with the copula.
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| Evidentials included
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| SORIS JUTU ... He was big (I saw myself) (only occurs with the past tense)
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| SORON JUTU ... They say she is big
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| SORUJA JUTU ... I guess she will be big
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| SORU JUTU ... SORUJA Quite often added as an afterthought
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| The above two even dental markers introduce some doubt. When the verity of the sentence is not in question, the unmarked form is used i.e.
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| Other words that define the VP (verb phrase) included
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| MO SORON JUTU ... They say she is not big
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| LOI MO RO JUTU ... probably she is not big
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| LOI MO SORON JUTU ... They say she is probably not big
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| MAS MO RO JUTU ... maybe she isn't big
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| MAS MO SORON JUTU ... They say maybe she isn't big
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| SIYA BOI ... be good (when speaking to one person)
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| SEYA BOI ... ... be good (when speaking to one person)
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| ... SAU
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| GASA ...
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| There is a word with the meaning "have", but it is used rarely. The usual way to say "I have a coat" ... !A KAUNU PAN (there is a coat mine) ... or why not simply !A KAUNAPU ?
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| A slightly idiomatic usage, is to say !A JEU PAN ... This means "I feel cold" with emphasis on the uniqueness/unexpectedness of "I"
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| For existence use GASA !A ... there is !AU ... there will be !AI ... there was
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| GASA always appears with a noun ... JEUNE !A (coldness there is) ... it is cold
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| However if GASA occurs immediately before an adjective, then that adjective is considered to be converted to a noun. For example !A JEU (there is cold) ... it is cold
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| The word order preferred when using !A/!AI/!AU, is !A/!AI/!AU first.
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| The forms !A/!AI/!AU can not be used when evidential information, perfect aspect or person other than the third must be included.
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| GASAR ... I exist
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| GASORI ... He/she/it existed (this form can be used as well as the forms NO !AI /A !AI)
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| LOI GASORIN ... They say, he probably existed
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| MO !A god ... god does not exist
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| ... GASA
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| BELIA ... to arrive
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| SELAU ... to become. this is the infinitive ... the common form is ( LAR)
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