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A short primer for Kala grammar. The full grammar can be found here:


= Han Moya=
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext


'''Han Moya''' is an adaptation of [[wp:Hangul|Hangul]] for writing '''Kala'''. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns.
= Heading 1 =


== Consonants ==
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}.
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation.
* {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation.


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ</b></big></big></font>
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.
: '''k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h'''
: /k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/


The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalization]]. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.
== Heading 2 ==
=== Heading 3 ===
==== Heading 4 ====


== Vowels ==
<nowiki>


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font>
{{col-begin}}
: '''a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i'''
{{col-break}}
: /a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/
 
words
 
{{col-break}}
 
ety
 
{{col-break}}
 
abbs
 
{{col-end}}
 
</nowiki>


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅘ</b></big></big></font> This is pronounced /we/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because [[wp:List_of_Hangul_jamo|obsolete jamo]] are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.
===== Heading 5 =====
====== Heading 6 ======




= Adjectives =
: = indentation


Kala does not have morphologically distinct adjectives. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.  
* Item1
* Item4
** Sub-item 4 a)
*** Sub-item 4 a) 1.
**** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
** Sub-item 4 b)
* Item5


* '''tsaka ketla'''
# Item1
: <small>house be.red</small>
# Item4
: ''The house is red.''
## Sub-item 1
### Sub-sub-item
#### Sub-sub-sub-item
## Sub-item 2
# Item5


The comparative is made by using the augmentative or diminutive ending on the verb.
; Term : Definition1


* '''tsaka hayo ke nayo ketlaha'''
; Term
: <small>house 3s.GEN O 1s.GEN be.red-AUG</small>
: Definition1
: ''His house is more red than mine.''
: Definition2
: Definition3


Equivalence is indicated with either '''kue''' (as, like), or '''mya''' (as...as).
To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.


* '''tsaka hayo kue nayo ketla'''
Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''.
: <small>house 3s.GEN as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
: ''His house is red like mine.''


* '''tsaka hayo mya nayo ketla'''
Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''.
: <small>house 3s.GEN as.X.as 1s.GEN be.red</small>
: ''His house is as red as mine.''


Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, '''aya''' means "beautiful", but '''ayako''' means "a beautiful one" or "a beauty." An adjective can be made into an abstract noun by adding -'''n''' (''-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood''). In this way '''aya''' becomes '''ayan''', meaning "beauty". This can also be used with nouns: '''ona''' (mother) becomes '''onan''' (motherhood).
'''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line.


= Adverbs =
For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}.


Kala does not have morphologically distinct adverbs. Adverbs can be formed from all adjectives (or stative verbs) by adding '''-n''' to the root. Since this rule is regular, it is not generally indicated in grammatical examples or in the lexicon.


* '''aya''' - beautiful >> '''ayan''' - beautifully
* [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]]
* '''tama''' - good >> '''taman''' - well
* '''poyo''' - rich >> '''poyon''' - richly
* '''tsipue''' - slow >> '''tsipuen''' - slowly (<small>this can also be marked on the main verb with '''-tsue'''</small>)
* '''tlaki''' - fluent >> '''tlakin''' - fluently


= Prepositions =
* [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]]


Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
= old / wrong =
{{col-begin}}
 
{{col-break}}
'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
* '''pahe''' - against; touching
* '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
* '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
* '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
* '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
* '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
* '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
* '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
* '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
* '''ma'e''' - before; in front
* '''maye''' - between; among
{{col-break}}
* '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
* '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
* '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
* '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
* '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
* '''tsa'e''' - across; through
* '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
* '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
* '''ya'e''' - near; close to
* '''yomo''' - to the right of
* '''yoso''' - to the left of
{{col-end}}


* '''na ke ito yamahue anyapa'''
'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
: <small>1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL</small>
: ''I can see a tree on the hill.''


* '''ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti'''
Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects.
: <small>child-PL outside.of house play</small>
[n] and [l] are in free variation.
: ''The children are playing outside of the house.''
[ɲ] is an allophone of /n/.
/x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.


= Conjunctions =


Words and phrases may be coordinated in Kala with the following words:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''pa''' - although; even though; even if
* '''ku''' - and; also [clause level]
* '''ma''' - and; also; too; as well
* '''ehe''' / ('''me''') - but; yet; however
* '''impo''' - therefore; as a result; so; consequently; thus
* '''ua''' - or; other; else
* '''ue''' - either X or Y
* '''uenke''' / ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
* '''yatli''' - if X then Y
* '''yema''' - both X and Y
* '''yetli''' - if it were not; if not X then Y >> X '''yatli''' Y
{{col-break}}
* '''ha'ena itsa ehe hinak'''
: <small>3s-P.1s love but be.here-NEG</small>
: ''She loves me but is not here.''


* '''aye na tala ku matsu'''
=== writing ===
: <small>PST 1s come CONJ conquer</small>
: ''I came, I conquered.''
{{col-end}}


= Questions =
[[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]


There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.


== polar questions ==


Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
[[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]


{{col-begin}}
== allophony ==
{{col-break}}
The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
* '''mita ina'''
: <small>dog eat</small>
: ''The dog eats.''


* '''nta'i moku'''
= Syntax =
: <small>baby sleep</small>
: ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''


* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
: ''You saw the elephant.''


* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
* '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
:
: ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
{{col-break}}
:
* '''mita ina ka'''
* '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
: <small>dog eat Q</small>
: ''Does the dog eat?''


* '''nta'i moku ka'''
= Nouns =
: <small>baby sleep Q</small>
: ''Is the baby sleeping?''


* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
: ''Did you see the elephant?''


* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
== pronouns ==
: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
: ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
{{col-end}}


== content questions ==
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".


Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
!
! singular
! plural
! possessive
|-align=center
! 1st person
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
|-align=center
! 2nd person
| '''ni'''<br>you
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
|-align=center
! 3rd person
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
|}


* '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
: <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
: ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''


* '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
: <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
: ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''


Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
= Verbs =


* '''ko ta ka'''
Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.
: <small>person 2sg Q</small>
: ''Who are you?''


* '''itla ka'''
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
: <small>this Q</small>
* '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])
: ''What is this?''


* '''to kihu ka'''
== tense, aspect, and mood ==
: <small>manner weather Q</small>
: ''What's the weather like?''


The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':  
Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ kanyo
|-−
|-
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
!  
! Kala
! gloss
! English
|-
! object
| '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
|-
|-
! person
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
| '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
|-
|-
! possession
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
| '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
|-
|-
! manner
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
| '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
|-
|-
! place
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
| '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
|-
! reason
| '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
|-
! time
| '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
|-
! amount
| '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
|-
! which
| '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
|}
|}


= Clauses =
* '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''
 
* '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''
 
== positional verbs ==
 
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
 
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
 
= Particles =
 
== determiners ==
 
Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.
 
=== deixis ===
 
* '''pu''' - this; these
* '''su''' - that; those
 
=== amount ===
 
* '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
* '''kula''' - all; every; each
* '''ne''' - no; none; zero
* '''poka''' - some; several; a few
::
* '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
* '''maso''' - more
 
=== other-ness ===
 
* '''asi''' - such
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
* '''oto''' - other
* '''tonye''' - same
 
= Number =
 
 
When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
 
* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
: ''She had two houses.''
 
* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
: ''I see four men.''
 
== Higher Numbers ==
 
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five
 
 
 
__NOTOC__
 
 
 
<center>
[[#ka|ka]] [[#sa|sa]] [[#ta|ta]] [[#na|na]] [[#pa|pa]] [[#ma|ma]] [[#ya|ya]] [[#la|la]] [[#wa|wa]] [[#a|a i u e o]]
</center>
 
= ka =
 
* '''kisa''' /ˈki.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]
: ''part'' - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
 
* '''kute''' /ˈku.te/ from FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]]
: ''v'' - listen; hear
 
* '''kono''' /ˈko.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]
: ''n'' - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
: ''v'' - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
 
* '''kome''' /ˈko.me/ from SPA [[wiktionary:comer#Spanish|comer]]
: ''v'' - eat; consume; drink
 
= sa =
 
* '''sa''' /sa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]
: ''part'' - future tense particle [FUT]
 
* '''saka/na''' /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]]
: ''v'' - be hot; be warm; burn
: ''n'' - heat; warmth / fire
 
 
* '''sana''' /ˈsa.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]]
: ''n'' - year; 365 days
 
* '''sapa''' /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]]
: ''n'' - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
 
* '''salama''' /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سلم#Arabic|سلم]]
: ''n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
: ''v'' - be peaceful; be calm
: ''intj'' - Peace! Hey! Hi!
 
* '''sawa''' /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]]
: ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
: ''v'' - marry
 
* '''si''' /si/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:四#Definitions|四]]
: ''num'' - four; 4
 
* '''siya''' /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:下#Definitions|下]]
: ''prep'' - below; under; beneath
: ''v'' - be under; be lower
 
* '''su''' /su/ from TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]
: ''part'' - that; those (over there)
 
* '''sunya''' /ˈsun.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]]
: ''num'' - zero; 0
: ''n'' - nothing
: ''v'' - be empty; be void
 
* '''se''' /se/ from SPA [[wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]]
: ''pro'' - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
 
* '''sosa''' /ˈso.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:salsa#Spanish|salsa]]
: ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing
 
= ta =
 
* '''tanka''' /ˈtaŋ.ka/ from ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke#German|danke]]
: ''v'' - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
: ''part/intj'' - thank you; thanks
 
* '''tapo''' /ˈta.po/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]]
: ''v'' - damage; wreck; break; destroy
: ''n'' - destruction; damage
 
* '''tipa''' /ˈti.pa/ (or '''tupa''' /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA [[wiktionary:طيب|طيب]] (or [[wiktionary:טוב|טוב]])
: ''v'' - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
: ''intj'' - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
 
* '''tiya''' /ˈti.ja/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]]
: ''n'' - aunt/uncle; extended family
 
* '''te''' /te/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Etymology_2_10|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Definitions_2|的]]
: ''v'' - to move away from
: ''prep'' - of; from
 
* '''tenpo''' /ˈtem.po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]
: ''n'' - time; moment; period
 
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/  from ENG [[wiktionary:tell|tell]]
: ''n'' - language; talk; speech
: ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
 
* '''tonpa''' /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞#Mandarin|同胞]]
: ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend
 
* '''tonye''' /ˈto.ɲe/ (or '''ton''' /ton/) from ZHO [[wiktionary:同一#Mandarin|同一]]
: ''v'' - be identical; same; equivalent; equal
 
= na =
 
* '''nai''' /naɪ/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:內#Japanese|內]]
: ''v'' - be inside; within
: ''prep'' - inside; within; during; while
 
* '''nano''' /ˈna.no/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:男#Definitions|男]]
: ''n'' - man; male
 
* '''nama''' /ˈna.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:نام#Verb|نام]]
: ''v'' - sleep; rest; relax
 
* '''naya''' /ˈna.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]]
: ''v'' - be new; fresh; young
 
* '''nalu''' /ˈna.lu/ from JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]]
: ''v'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
 
* '''ni''' /ni/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:你#Definitions|你]]
: ''pro'' - you [2sg]
 
* '''nun''' /nun/ from PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]]
: ''num'' - nine; 9
 
* '''ne''' /ne/ from ENG [[wiktionary:nay#Interjection|nay]]
: ''part'' - no; not; negative [NEG]
 
* '''nesi''' /ˈne.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]
: ''v'' - need; require; must
: ''n'' - obligation; need
 
* '''nen/ka''' /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:能#Definitions|能]]
: ''v'' - be able to; be capable; be possible
: ''n'' - potential; possibility; capability
 
* '''note''' /ˈno.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]]
: ''n'' - night; darkness
 
= pa =
 
* '''pa''' /pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]]
: ''num'' - eight; 8
 
* '''pan''' /pan/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]]
: ''n'' - bread; food; sustenance
 
* '''pala''' /ˈpa.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:palabra#Spanish|palabra]]
: ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme
 
* '''pina''' /ˈpi.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]]
: ''n'' - child; offspring; kid
 
* '''pu''' /pu/ from TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]
: ''part'' - this; these (here)
 
* '''pula''' /ˈpu.la/ from HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]
: ''n'' - evil
: ''v'' - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
 
* '''pen''' /pen/ from ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε#Greek|πέντε]]
: ''num'' - five; 5
 
* '''po''' /po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]
: ''prep'' - by; for; [be] about
: ''v'' - [go] through; [move] across
 
* '''poka''' /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]
: ''v'' - be small; little
: ''v'' - be few; less
 
* '''ponte''' /ˈpon.te/ from ENG [[wiktionary:ponder|ponder]]
: ''v'' - think; ponder; consider; weigh
: ''n'' - thought; idea; consideration
 
* '''pone''' /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poner|poner]]
: ''v'' - to put, to place, to set
 
= ma =
 
* '''ma''' /ma/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]
: ''part'' - interrogative particle [Q]
 
* '''maka''' /ˈma.ka/ from ENG [[wiktionary:make|make]]
: ''n'' - cause; action; happening
: ''v'' - do; make; cause; happen
 
* '''maso''' /ˈma.so/ from SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]
: ''part'' - more; again
: ''n'' - layer; repetition; addition
: ''v'' - add; repeat; layer
 
* '''mala''' /ˈma.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]]
: ''n'' - woman; female; wife
 
* '''mila''' /ˈmi.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]]
: ''num'' - thousand; 1000
 
* '''muki''' /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]]
: ''n'' - importance; significance
: ''v'' - be important; matter
 
* '''muna''' /ˈmu.na/ from ENG [[wiktionary:moon#English|moon]]
: ''n'' - moon; month
 
* '''me''' /me/ from FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]
: ''part'' - but; however; although
 
* '''moto''' /ˈmo.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]
: ''n'' - mood; manner; way; method
 
= ya =
 
* '''ya''' /ja/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]
: ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
 
* '''yati''' /ˈja.ti/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يد|يد]]
: ''n'' - hand; arm
: ''v'' - give; transfer
 
* '''yapu''' /ˈja.pu/ from ARA [[wiktionary:عفا|عفا]]
: ''n'' - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
: ''v'' - pardon; excuse; forgive
 
* '''yame''' /ˈja.me/ from ARA [[wiktionary:جمع|جمع]]
: ''n'' - collection; gathering; group; set
: ''v'' - gather; collect; assemble; unite
 
* '''yu''' /ju/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Definitions|于]]
: ''v'' - be in; at; out of
: ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of
 
* '''yuma''' /ˈju.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]
: ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period
 
* '''ye''' /je/ from KOR [[wiktionary:열#Korean|열]]
: ''num'' - ten; 10
 
* '''yeko''' /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以后]]
: ''prep'' - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
: ''adv'' - from now on; henceforth
 
* '''yo''' /jo/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]]
: ''v'' - have; possess; carry; hold; keep
 
= la =
 
* '''laka''' /ˈla.ka/ from ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]]
: ''n'' - number; digit; amount
: ''v'' - count; enumerate
 
* '''lata''' /ˈla.ta/ from SPA [[wiktionary:lata#Spanish|lata]]
: ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
: ''v'' - carry; tote; transport
 
* '''li''' /li/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:兩#Definitions|兩]]
: ''num'' - two; double; duo
: ''pro'' - some; a few
 
* '''le''' /le/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]]
: ''part'' - past tense marker [PST]
 
* '''loka''' /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]
: ''n'' - place; location; point; spot
 
= wa =
 
* '''wa''' /wa/ from ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:واحد|واحد]]/[[wiktionary:我|我]]
: ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
: ''num'' - one; 1; single
: ''v'' - be alone; be singular
 
* '''waya''' /ˈwa.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]
: ''v'' - grow; mature; develop
: ''n'' - adult; mature thing
 
 
 
* '''wino''' /ˈwi.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]]
: ''n'' - alcohol; beer; wine
: ''v'' - drink ~
 
* '''we''' /we/ from PIE [[wiktionary:econstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]
: ''num'' - six; 6
 
* '''weko''' /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]
: ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port
 
* '''wento''' /ˈwen.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]]
: ''n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
 
* '''wela''' /ˈwe.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]]
: ''prep'' - outside; exterior
: ''v'' - leave; exit
 
= a =
 
 
 
* '''alima''' /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:علم|علم]]
: ''v'' - to discern, to find out, to learn
: ''n'' - learning; education; knowledge
 
* '''amo''' /ˈa.mo/ from SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]
: ''n'' - love; affection; adoration
: ''v'' - love; adore; like
 
* '''ante''' /ˈan.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]
: ''n'' - front side; chest; fore area
: ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead
 
* '''asi''' /ˈa.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]
: ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
 
* '''awa''' /ˈa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أو|أو]]
: ''part'' - either; or; other
 
* '''ayo''' /ˈa.jo/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أي|أي]]
:''part'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
 
* '''e''' /e/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Etymology_2_17|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]]
: ''part'' - and; also; too
 
* '''ila''' /ˈi.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]
: ''prep'' - toward; at; in direction of
: ''v'' - go (toward); walk; travel
 
* '''o''' /o/ from JPN [[wiktionary:を#Etymology_2|を]]
: ''part'' - direct object particle
 
 
 
* wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
* en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language
 
 
A working phrasebook for [[Kalo]].
 
= Essentials =
 
 
* '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]])
 
* '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is"
* '''ne''' - "no; it is not"
 
* '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me."
* '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?]
:: by extension "Do you mind?"
* '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)."
* '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK."
 
= Greetings & Goodbyes =
 
* '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
* '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night"
* '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"
 
== Civilities ==
 
* '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?''
** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine."
** '''...''' - "Not bad."
 
 


Relative clauses (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:


* '''naka ke na itsatle te ameyo'''
: <small>woman O 1s love-REL from America</small>
: ''The woman (that) I love comes from America.''


* '''mayo ke na kitlayetle muyak'''
: <small>tool O 1s create-PST-REL do-NEG</small>
: ''The tool (that) I built doesn't function.''


* '''na ke ta yani unyak''' / '''na ke yani tayo unyak'''
* '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see''
: <small>1s O 2s mean know-NEG / 1s O meaning 2s.GEN know-NEG</small>
: ''I don't understand what you mean.''

Latest revision as of 10:48, 8 April 2025

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext

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  • In syllable codas, [ʃ] replaces [s].
  • In syllable codas, [ʒ] replaces [z].
  • [β] and [ʙ] are in free variation.
  • [ʁ] and [ʀ] are in free variation.

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Miyu allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.

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To italicize text, put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.

Three apostrophes each side will bold the text.

Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces bold italics.

Italic and bold formatting works correctly only within a single line.

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old / wrong

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects. [n] and [l] are in free variation. [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/. /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.


writing

All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul
Kalo Hangul


A katakana method for writing Kalo
Kalo Katakana

allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Syntax

  • wa kome - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o mala amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

singular plural possessive
1st person wa
I; me 		walo
we; us 		wayo
my; mine; our(s)
2nd person ni
you 		nilo
you (all) 		niyo
your(s)
3rd person ko
he; she; him; her; it 		kolo
they; them; those 		koyo
their(s)
  • walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.
  • kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.

  • maka - do; make; cause (from make)
  • yo - possess; have; hold (from 有)

tense, aspect, and mood

Past tense is indicated by the particle le (了) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle sa (سَـ).

tense/mood particle example translation
present - wa ila I go
past le wa ila le I went
future sa wa ila sa I will go
conditional kisa wa ila kisa I would go
  • ko ne kome le - 3sg NEG eat PST - He didn't eat.
  • walo wite sa ko - 1pl see FUT 3sg - We will see her.

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

  • yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
  • ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Particles

determiners

Determiners in kalo precede the noun they modify.

deixis

  • pu - this; these
  • su - that; those

amount

  • aku - many; much (one hundred)
  • kula - all; every; each
  • ne - no; none; zero
  • poka - some; several; a few
  • meno - less; fewer / few; a little
  • maso - more

other-ness

  • asi - such
  • ayo - whichever; whatever
  • oto - other
  • tonye - same

Number

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "ke" precedes the number.

  • ko yo le o kasa ke li
3s have PST O house NUM two
She had two houses.
  • wa wite o nano ke si
1s see O man NUM four
I see four men.

Higher Numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five




ka sa ta na pa ma ya la wa a i u e o

ka

  • kisa /ˈki.sa/ from SPA quizá
part - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
v - listen; hear
n - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
v - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
  • kome /ˈko.me/ from SPA comer
v - eat; consume; drink

sa

part - future tense particle [FUT]
  • saka/na /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA سخن
v - be hot; be warm; burn
n - heat; warmth / fire


  • sana /ˈsa.na/ from ARA سنة
n - year; 365 days
  • sapa /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA سبب
n - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
  • salama /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA سلم
n - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
v - be peaceful; be calm
intj - Peace! Hey! Hi!
  • sawa /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA زوج
n - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
v - marry
  • si /si/ from ZHO 四
num - four; 4
  • siya /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO 下
prep - below; under; beneath
v - be under; be lower
  • su /su/ from TUR şu
part - that; those (over there)
num - zero; 0
n - nothing
v - be empty; be void
  • se /se/ from SPA se
pro - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
  • sosa /ˈso.sa/ from SPA salsa
n - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing

ta

v - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
part/intj - thank you; thanks
  • tapo /ˈta.po/ from ZHO 打破
v - damage; wreck; break; destroy
n - destruction; damage
  • tipa /ˈti.pa/ (or tupa /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA طيب (or טוב)
v - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
intj - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
  • tiya /ˈti.ja/ from SPA tía
n - aunt/uncle; extended family
  • te /te/ from SPA/ZHO de/的
v - to move away from
prep - of; from
  • tenpo /ˈtem.po/ from SPA tiempo
n - time; moment; period
  • tela or talo /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/ from ENG tell
n - language; talk; speech
v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
  • tonpa /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO 同胞
n - sibling; compatriot; friend
  • tonye /ˈto.ɲe/ (or ton /ton/) from ZHO 同一
v - be identical; same; equivalent; equal

na

  • nai /naɪ/ from ZHO 內
v - be inside; within
prep - inside; within; during; while
  • nano /ˈna.no/ from ZHO 男
n - man; male
  • nama /ˈna.ma/ from ARA نام
v - sleep; rest; relax
v - be new; fresh; young
  • nalu /ˈna.lu/ from JPN なる
v - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
  • ni /ni/ from ZHO 你
pro - you [2sg]
num - nine; 9
  • ne /ne/ from ENG nay
part - no; not; negative [NEG]
v - need; require; must
n - obligation; need
  • nen/ka /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO 能
v - be able to; be capable; be possible
n - potential; possibility; capability
  • note /ˈno.te/ from SPA noche
n - night; darkness

pa

  • pa /pa/ from ZHO 八
num - eight; 8
  • pan /pan/ from SPA/ZHO pan/飯
n - bread; food; sustenance
n - word; morpheme; lexeme
  • pina /ˈpi.na/ from ARA ابن
n - child; offspring; kid
  • pu /pu/ from TUR bu
part - this; these (here)
n - evil
v - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
num - five; 5
  • po /po/ from SPA por
prep - by; for; [be] about
v - [go] through; [move] across
  • poka /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA poca
v - be small; little
v - be few; less
  • ponte /ˈpon.te/ from ENG ponder
v - think; ponder; consider; weigh
n - thought; idea; consideration
  • pone /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA poner
v - to put, to place, to set

ma

  • ma /ma/ from ZHO 嗎
part - interrogative particle [Q]
  • maka /ˈma.ka/ from ENG make
n - cause; action; happening
v - do; make; cause; happen
  • maso /ˈma.so/ from SPA más
part - more; again
n - layer; repetition; addition
v - add; repeat; layer
n - woman; female; wife
  • mila /ˈmi.la/ from SPA mil
num - thousand; 1000
  • muki /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA مهم
n - importance; significance
v - be important; matter
  • muna /ˈmu.na/ from ENG moon
n - moon; month
  • me /me/ from FRE mais
part - but; however; although
  • moto /ˈmo.to/ from SPA modo
n - mood; manner; way; method

ya

  • ya /ja/ from ARA يا
part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
  • yati /ˈja.ti/ from ARA يد
n - hand; arm
v - give; transfer
  • yapu /ˈja.pu/ from ARA عفا
n - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
v - pardon; excuse; forgive
  • yame /ˈja.me/ from ARA جمع
n - collection; gathering; group; set
v - gather; collect; assemble; unite
  • yu /ju/ from ZHO 于
v - be in; at; out of
prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of
  • yuma /ˈju.ma/ from ARA يوم
n - day; daylight; 24 hour period
  • ye /je/ from KOR 열
num - ten; 10
  • yeko /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO 以后
prep - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
adv - from now on; henceforth
  • yo /jo/ from ZHO 有
v - have; possess; carry; hold; keep

la

  • laka /ˈla.ka/ from ARA رقم
n - number; digit; amount
v - count; enumerate
  • lata /ˈla.ta/ from SPA lata
n - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
v - carry; tote; transport
  • li /li/ from ZHO 兩
num - two; double; duo
pro - some; a few
  • le /le/ from ZHO 了
part - past tense marker [PST]
  • loka /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA local
n - place; location; point; spot

wa

pro - I; me [1sg]
num - one; 1; single
v - be alone; be singular
v - grow; mature; develop
n - adult; mature thing


  • wino /ˈwi.no/ from SPA vino
n - alcohol; beer; wine
v - drink ~
num - six; 6
  • weko /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA hueco
n - door, hole, orifice, window; port
  • wento /ˈwen.to/ from SPA viento
n - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
  • wela /ˈwe.la/ from SPA fuera
prep - outside; exterior
v - leave; exit

a

  • alima /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA علم
v - to discern, to find out, to learn
n - learning; education; knowledge
  • amo /ˈa.mo/ from SPA amor
n - love; affection; adoration
v - love; adore; like
  • ante /ˈan.te/ from SPA ante
n - front side; chest; fore area
prep - before; in front; forward; ahead
  • asi /ˈa.si/ from SPA así
part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
  • awa /ˈa.wa/ from ARA أو
part - either; or; other
  • ayo /ˈa.jo/ from ARA أي
part - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
  • e /e/ from SPA/ZHO e/和
part - and; also; too
prep - toward; at; in direction of
v - go (toward); walk; travel
  • o /o/ from JPN を
part - direct object particle


  • wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
  • en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


A working phrasebook for Kalo.

Essentials

  • ola - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to aloha)
  • kan/a - "yes; it is"
  • ne - "no; it is not"
  • yapu wa - "Excuse me."
  • nenka ma - "Please." [lit: is (it) possible?]
by extension "Do you mind?"
  • tanka (ta) - "Thank you (very much)."
  • tipa - "(That's) OK."

Greetings & Goodbyes

  • ola yuma - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
  • ola note - "Good evening/night"
  • salama - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"

Civilities

  • moto (niyo) ma - manner 2s.POSS Q - How are you?
    • tipa - "Good/OK/Fine."
    • ... - "Not bad."




  • tenpo ta ne wite - time big no see - Long time no see
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