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== Content words ==


==== Pronouns ====
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext
 
= Heading 1 =
 
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}.
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation.
* {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation.
 
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.
 
== Heading 2 ==
=== Heading 3 ===
==== Heading 4 ====
 
<nowiki>


'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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Personal pronouns:


* '''na''' - 1st person
words
* '''ta''' - 2nd person
 
* '''ha''' - 3rd person
* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
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Modifiers:


* '''-m''' - plural
ety
* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
 
* '''e-''' - patient
* '''-i''' - reflexive
* '''-yo''' - possessive
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Other pronouns include:


* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
abbs
* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
 
* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
* '''nokua''' - everything
* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
* '''nok''' - nothing
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
</nowiki>
|+ nkalo
 
|-
===== Heading 5 =====
!
====== Heading 6 ======
! Agent
 
! Patient
 
! Reflexive
: = indentation
! Possessive
 
! Reciprocal
* Item1
|-
* Item4
! 1sg
** Sub-item 4 a)
| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
*** Sub-item 4 a) 1.
|-
**** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
! 2sg
** Sub-item 4 b)
| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
* Item5
|-
 
! 3sg
# Item1
| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
# Item4
|-
## Sub-item 1
! 4sg
### Sub-sub-item
| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
#### Sub-sub-sub-item
|-
## Sub-item 2
! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
# Item5
| '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
 
|-
; Term : Definition1
! 2pl
 
| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
; Term
|-
: Definition1
! 3pl
: Definition2
| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
: Definition3
|-
 
! 4pl
To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.
| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
 
Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''.
 
Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''.
 
'''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line.
 
For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}.
 
 
* [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]]
 
* [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]]
 
= old / wrong =
 
'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
 
'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
 
Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects.
[n] and [l] are in free variation.
[ɲ] is an allophone of /n/.
/x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.
 
 
 
=== writing ===
 
[[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]
 
 
 
[[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]
 
== allophony ==
The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
 
= Syntax =
 
 
* '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
* '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
 
= Nouns =
 
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
 
== pronouns ==
 
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
!
! singular
! plural
! possessive
|-align=center
! 1st person
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
|-align=center
! 2nd person
| '''ni'''<br>you
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
|-align=center
! 3rd person
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
|}
|}


==== Determiners & Demostratives ====
* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''


The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''


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= Verbs =
{{col-break}}
* '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
* '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
* '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)


Examples:
Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.


* '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''A few of these dogs''
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
* '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Many of those dogs (over there)''
* '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])
* '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each of those dogs (near you)''
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Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.


* '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
== tense, aspect, and mood ==
* '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
* '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
* '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
* '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
* '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
* '''maha''' - more; plus
* '''ohi''' - less; fewer
{{col-end}}


===== Correlatives =====
Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 1000px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ uatse
|-−
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
|-
|-
!
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
! Negative<br>'''-k'''
! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
|-
|-
! mo<br>''(place)''
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
| '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
|-
|-
! ko<br>''(person)''
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
| '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
|-
|-
! uku<br>''(amount)''
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
| '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
|-
! ama<br>''(time)''
| '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
|-
! so<br>''(kind, type)''
| '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
|-
! no<br>''(thing)''
| '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
|-
! to<br>''(manner, way)''
| '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
|}
|}


=== Verbs ===
* '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''
'''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']] and the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.


==== Passivity ====
* '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''


The passive voice is formed by prefixing '''e'''- ([[wp:Patient_(grammar)|patient marker]]) to pronouns, and the object marker '''ke''' for nouns, or '''nya''' "for, by, via".
== positional verbs ==


{{col-begin}}
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
{{col-break}}
 
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
 
= Particles =
 
== determiners ==
 
Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.
 
=== deixis ===
 
* '''pu''' - this; these
* '''su''' - that; those
 
=== amount ===
 
* '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
* '''kula''' - all; every; each
* '''ne''' - no; none; zero
* '''poka''' - some; several; a few
::
* '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
* '''maso''' - more
 
=== other-ness ===
 
* '''asi''' - such
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
* '''oto''' - other
* '''tonye''' - same
 
= Number =


* '''ha yatsi'''
: <small>3sg bite</small>
: ''He bites.''


* '''ha yapo'''
When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
: <small>3sg build</small>
: ''He builds.''
{{col-break}}


* '''eha yatsi'''
* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
: <small>P.3sg bite</small>
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
: ''He is bitten.''
: ''She had two houses.''


* '''etla nya ha yapo'''
* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
: <small>P.4sg by 3sg build</small>
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
: ''It is built by him.''
: ''I see four men.''
{{col-end}}
==== Tense ====


Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
== Higher Numbers ==


* The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
:'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five


* If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
:'''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
|+ eme
|-
!
! Kala
! gloss
! English
|-
! Present
| '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
|-
! Past
| '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
|-
! Recent Past
| '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
|-
! Remote Past
| '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
|-
! Future
| '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
|-
! Immediate Future
| '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
|-
! Distant Future
| '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
|}


==== Aspect ====
__NOTOC__


There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]]  aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+ ti'a
|-
!
! Kala
! gloss
! English
|-
! Progressive
| '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
|-
! Perfective
| '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
|-
! Inchoative
| '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
|-
! Frequentative
| '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
|}


==== Mood ====
<center>
[[#ka|ka]] [[#sa|sa]] [[#ta|ta]] [[#na|na]] [[#pa|pa]] [[#ma|ma]] [[#ya|ya]] [[#la|la]] [[#wa|wa]] [[#a|a i u e o]]
</center>


The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
= ka =


* '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
* '''kisa''' /ˈki.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]
* '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''
: ''part'' - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]


==== Affix Ordering ====
* '''kute''' /ˈku.te/ from FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]]
: ''v'' - listen; hear


Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning…their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adjectival, and plural ending are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
* '''kono''' /ˈko.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]
: ''n'' - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
: ''v'' - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize


<tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
* '''kome''' /ˈko.me/ from SPA [[wiktionary:comer#Spanish|comer]]
: ''v'' - eat; consume; drink


Example:
= sa =


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
* '''sa''' /sa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]
|+
: ''part'' - future tense particle [FUT]
|-
! Verb Stem
! Size/Importance
! Mood
! Aspect
! Tense
! Negative
|-
| '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
|-
| run || DIM || ABIL || PROG  || PST || NEG
|}


* '''na empahipankoyek'''
* '''saka/na''' /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]]
: <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
: ''v'' - be hot; be warm; burn
: ''I was not able to keep jogging.''
: ''n'' - heat; warmth / fire


=== adjectives ===
Kala does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives. This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
* '''mita inya''' - <small>dog be.hungry</small>
** ''The dog hungers.''
** ''The dog is hungry.''
** ''The hungry dog.''
** ''A hungry dog.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''tsaka ketlahi''' - <small>house be.red-DIM</small>
** ''The house is a little red.''
** ''The light-red house.''
** ''A pale red house.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''taki saua''' - <small>coat be.wet</small>
** ''The coat is wet.''
** ''The wet coat.''
** ''A wet coat.''
{{Col-break}}
* '''umalo tahaku''' - <small>horse-PL be.big-extreme</small>
** ''The horses are extremely large.''
** ''The very big horses.''
{{Col-end}}
==== comparison ====
In [[Kala]] the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the [[Wikipedia:Elative_(gradation)|elative]]. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
: <small>house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG</small>
: ''His house is bigger than mine.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ke mauam tayo yanaha'''
: <small>O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG</small>
: ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
{{col-break}}
* '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
: <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
: ''This building is newer than your home.''
{{col-end}}
==== relative ====
In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix '''-tle''' (or '''-le''' if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns ''who, what, which, where'' are not used in Kala as in English.


* '''yalapa''' - ''to be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapatle''' - ''who/which/that can walk''
* '''sana''' /ˈsa.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]]
* '''yalapak''' - ''to not be able to walk'' produces: '''yalapanketle''' - ''who/which/that can't walk''
: ''n'' - year; 365 days
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.


* '''na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya'''
* '''sapa''' /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]]
: <small>1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know</small>
: ''n'' - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
: ''I know the man who is coming to lunch.''


* '''ke naka patlole pako'''
* '''salama''' /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سلم#Arabic|سلم]]
: <small>O woman sweep-REL young</small>
: ''n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
: ''The woman who is sweeping is young.''
: ''v'' - be peaceful; be calm
{{col-break}}
: ''intj'' - Peace! Hey! Hi!
The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative '''-k'''.


* '''itsaka na sutahuetle'''
* '''sawa''' /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]]
: <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL</small>
: ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
: ''This is the house in which I live.''
: ''v'' - marry


* '''itsaka na sutahueyetlek'''
* '''si''' /si/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:四#Definitions|四]]
: <small>PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG</small>
: ''num'' - four; 4
: ''This is the house in which I did not live.''
{{col-end}}


=== adpositionals ===
* '''siya''' /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:下#Definitions|下]]
Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as [[wp:Preposition_and_postposition|adpositions]]:
: ''prep'' - below; under; beneath
{{Col-begin}}
: ''v'' - be under; be lower
{{Col-2}}
* '''pahe''' - against; touching
* '''pa'e''' - apart from; other than; except for
* '''paye''' - beyond; exceeding; farther than
* '''pue''' - after; back; behind; rear
* '''tahe''' - below; beneath; under
* '''ka'e''' - to; towards; at [moving toward]
* '''kaye''' - around; encircling; surrounding
* '''mahe''' - around; approximate; close to
* '''ma'a''' - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
* '''ma'e''' - before; in front
* '''maye''' - between; among
{{Col-2}}
* '''nahe ''' - in [located inside of]; internal
* '''nyaue''' - outside of; exterior to
* '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
* '''saye''' - along; following [a line]
* '''hue / -hue''' - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
* '''tsa'e''' - across; through
* '''ua'e''' - above; over / on
* '''uaye''' - from [moving out of or away from]
* '''ya'e''' - near; close to
* '''yomo''' - to the right of
* '''yoso''' - to the left of
{{Col-end}}


=== Numbers ===
* '''su''' /su/ from TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]
: ''part'' - that; those (over there)


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
* '''sunya''' /ˈsun.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]]
|+
: ''num'' - zero; 0
|-
: ''n'' - nothing
! Kala
: ''v'' - be empty; be void
! number
! English
! Kala
! number
! English
! Kala
! number
! English
|-
| '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
|-
| '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
|-
| '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
|-
| '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
|-
| '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
|-
| '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
|}


==== Forming Larger Numbers ====
* '''se''' /se/ from SPA [[wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]]
: ''pro'' - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun


* '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
* '''sosa''' /ˈso.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:salsa#Spanish|salsa]]
* '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
: ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing
* '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
* '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
* '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024


==== Other Number Forms ====
= ta =


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
* '''tanka''' /ˈtaŋ.ka/ from ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke#German|danke]]
|+
: ''v'' - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
|-
: ''part/intj'' - thank you; thanks
! Kala
! number
! English
! ordinal
! multiple
! fractional
|-
| '''na'o''' || 1 || one  || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
|-
| '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth  || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
|-
| '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four  || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
|-
| '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
|-
| '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand  || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
|}


==== Math Operations ====
* '''tapo''' /ˈta.po/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]]
: ''v'' - damage; wreck; break; destroy
: ''n'' - destruction; damage


* '''ha'o ma ya'o ke pa'o a'''
* '''tipa''' /ˈti.pa/ (or '''tupa''' /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA [[wiktionary:طيب|طيب]] (or [[wiktionary:טוב|טוב]])
: <small>3 and 5 O 8 COP</small>
: ''v'' - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
: ''Three plus five is eight.''
: ''intj'' - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!


* '''tsa'o ma ya'ok ke na'o a'''
* '''tiya''' /ˈti.ja/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]]
: <small>6 and 5-NEG O 1 COP</small>
: ''n'' - aunt/uncle; extended family
: ''Six and five-less is one.''


* '''ha'o ma tima'o ke ueta'o a'''
* '''te''' /te/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Etymology_2_10|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Definitions_2|的]]
: <small>3 and multiple-4 O 12 COP</small>
: ''v'' - to move away from
: ''Three times four is twelve.''
: ''prep'' - of; from


* '''tama'o ma ha'o ke pa'o yeka'''
* '''tenpo''' /ˈtem.po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]
: <small>24 and 3 O 8 division</small>
: ''n'' - time; moment; period
: ''Twenty-four divided by three is eight.''


== Function words ==
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/  from ENG [[wiktionary:tell|tell]]
: ''n'' - language; talk; speech
: ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell


Function words serve only grammatical functions. They have no meaning by themselves. Function words have to be used together with Content Words to form a meaningful sentence or phrase. Function words are a much smaller category in number but more frequently used. '''Kala''' function words are divided into a few subcategories; particles, conjunctions, and interjections.
* '''tonpa''' /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞#Mandarin|同胞]]
: ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend


=== Particles ===
* '''tonye''' /ˈto.ɲe/ (or '''ton''' /ton/) from ZHO [[wiktionary:同一#Mandarin|同一]]
: ''v'' - be identical; same; equivalent; equal


==== ke ====
= na =
: The direct object particle. It can often be omitted, especially in simple phrases, when the object is understood.


* '''na mita anya'''
* '''nai''' /naɪ/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:內#Japanese|內]]
: <small>1sg dog see</small>
: ''v'' - be inside; within
: ''I see the dog.''
: ''prep'' - inside; within; during; while


* '''na tahe yempa ke mita anyaye'''
* '''nano''' /ˈna.no/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:男#Definitions|男]]
: <small>1sg be.under table O dog see-PST</small>
: ''n'' - man; male
: ''I saw the dog under the table.''


=== Conjunctions ===
* '''nama''' /ˈna.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:نام#Verb|نام]]
: ''v'' - sleep; rest; relax


There are three coordinating conjunctions in Kala and three correlative conjunctions:
* '''naya''' /ˈna.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]]
: ''v'' - be new; fresh; young


{{col-begin}}
* '''nalu''' /ˈna.lu/ from JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]]
{{col-break}}
: ''v'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
==== coordinating ====
* '''ma''' - and; also
:: '''mita ina ma moku'''
:: <small>dog eat and sleep</small>
:: ''The dog eats and sleeps.''


* '''ua''' - or
* '''ni''' /ni/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:你#Definitions|你]]
:: '''mita ina ua moku'''
: ''pro'' - you [2sg]
:: <small>dog eat or sleep</small>
:: ''The dog eats or sleeps.''


* '''ehe''' ('''me''') - but; yet
* '''nun''' /nun/ from PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]]
:: '''mita ina me mokunke'''
: ''num'' - nine; 9
:: <small>dog eat but sleep-NEG</small>
:: ''The dog eats but does not sleep.''
{{col-break}}


==== correlative ====
* '''ne''' /ne/ from ENG [[wiktionary:nay#Interjection|nay]]
* '''yema''' - both X and Y
: ''part'' - no; not; negative [NEG]
:: '''mita ina yema empa'''
:: <small>dog eat both.X.and.Y run</small>
:: ''The dog both eats and runs.''<br>''The dog is eating and running simultaneously.''


* '''ue''' - either X or Y
* '''nesi''' /ˈne.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]
:: '''mita ina ue empa'''
: ''v'' - need; require; must
:: <small>dog eat either.X.or.Y run</small>
: ''n'' - obligation; need
:: ''The dog is either eating or running.''


* '''uenke''' ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
* '''nen/ka''' /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:能#Definitions|能]]
:: '''mita ina uenke empa'''
: ''v'' - be able to; be capable; be possible
:: <small>dog eat neither.X.nor.Y run</small>
: ''n'' - potential; possibility; capability
:: ''The dog is neither eating nor running.''
{{col-end}}


=== interjections ===
* '''note''' /ˈno.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]]
: ''n'' - night; darkness


The most common interjections in Kala are as follows;
= pa =


* '''kya''' - imperative particle
* '''pa''' /pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]]
: ''num'' - eight; 8


* '''kyo''' - imperative particle
* '''pan''' /pan/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]]
: ''n'' - bread; food; sustenance


* '''kyo'a''' - imperative particle
* '''pala''' /ˈpa.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:palabra#Spanish|palabra]]
: ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme


* '''nka''' - emphatic negative
* '''pina''' /ˈpi.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]]
: ''n'' - child; offspring; kid


* '''ya''' - vocative particle
* '''pu''' /pu/ from TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]
: ''part'' - this; these (here)


* '''a''' - affirmative
* '''pula''' /ˈpu.la/ from HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]
: ''n'' - evil
: ''v'' - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil


* '''aya''' - expresses strong emotions such as surprise ('ah', 'argh') and pain ('ow')
* '''pen''' /pen/ from ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε#Greek|πέντε]]
: ''num'' - five; 5


=== Interjections ===
* '''po''' /po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]
: ''prep'' - by; for; [be] about
: ''v'' - [go] through; [move] across


= Word formation =
* '''poka''' /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]
: ''v'' - be small; little
: ''v'' - be few; less


== Compounding ==
* '''ponte''' /ˈpon.te/ from ENG [[wiktionary:ponder|ponder]]
: ''v'' - think; ponder; consider; weigh
: ''n'' - thought; idea; consideration


== Derivation ==
* '''pone''' /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poner|poner]]
: ''v'' - to put, to place, to set


=== Verbalization ===
= ma =


=== Nominalization ===
* '''ma''' /ma/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]
: ''part'' - interrogative particle [Q]


= Basic syntax =
* '''maka''' /ˈma.ka/ from ENG [[wiktionary:make|make]]
: ''n'' - cause; action; happening
: ''v'' - do; make; cause; happen


The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
* '''maso''' /ˈma.so/ from SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]
: ''part'' - more; again
: ''n'' - layer; repetition; addition
: ''v'' - add; repeat; layer


AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
* '''mala''' /ˈma.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]]
: ''n'' - woman; female; wife


The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
* '''mila''' /ˈmi.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]]
: ''num'' - thousand; 1000


* '''mita tlaka anya'''
* '''muki''' /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]]
: <small>dog man see</small>
: ''n'' - importance; significance
: ''The dog sees the man.''
: ''v'' - be important; matter


* '''tlaka mita anya'''
* '''muna''' /ˈmu.na/ from ENG [[wiktionary:moon#English|moon]]
: <small>man dog see</small>
: ''n'' - moon; month
: ''The man sees the dog.''


In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
* '''me''' /me/ from FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]
: ''part'' - but; however; although


== Simple sentences ==
* '''moto''' /ˈmo.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]
=== Intransitive clauses ===
: ''n'' - mood; manner; way; method


Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
= ya =


* '''nta'i moku'''
* '''ya''' /ja/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]
: <small>baby sleep</small>
: ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
: ''The baby sleeps.''


* '''mita ina'''  
* '''yati''' /ˈja.ti/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يد|يد]]
: <small>dog eat</small>
: ''n'' - hand; arm
: ''The dog eats.''
: ''v'' - give; transfer


* '''sama nala'''  
* '''yapu''' /ˈja.pu/ from ARA [[wiktionary:عفا|عفا]]
: <small>sun shine</small>
: ''n'' - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
: ''The sun shines.''
: ''v'' - pardon; excuse; forgive


* '''kamahi ke naha ya'e'''  
* '''yame''' /ˈja.me/ from ARA [[wiktionary:جمع|جمع]]
: <small>town-DIM O river be.near</small>
: ''n'' - collection; gathering; group; set
: ''There is a village near the river.''
: ''v'' - gather; collect; assemble; unite


* '''ke apua muyapua'''  
* '''yu''' /ju/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Definitions|于]]
: <small>O song do-PFV</small>
: ''v'' - be in; at; out of
: ''The song has been sung.''
: ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of


=== Transitive clauses ===
* '''yuma''' /ˈju.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]
: ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period


Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.
* '''ye''' /je/ from KOR [[wiktionary:열#Korean|열]]
: ''num'' - ten; 10


* '''ona ke matla kuha'''  
* '''yeko''' /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以后]]
: <small>mother O stew cook</small>
: ''prep'' - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
: ''The mother is cooking stew.''
: ''adv'' - from now on; henceforth


* '''tasako ke masala yake'''
* '''yo''' /jo/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]]
: <small>hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase</small>
: ''v'' - have; possess; carry; hold; keep
: ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''


* '''kyali ke itohuatla peha'''
= la =
: <small>spear O tree-oak pierce</small>
: ''The spear pierces the oak tree.''


* '''tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata'''
* '''laka''' /ˈla.ka/ from ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]]
: <small>hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill</small>
: ''n'' - number; digit; amount
: ''The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.''
: ''v'' - count; enumerate


=== Predication ===
* '''lata''' /ˈla.ta/ from SPA [[wiktionary:lata#Spanish|lata]]
: ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
: ''v'' - carry; tote; transport


Nominal predicates are formed with the copula '''a''', using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.
* '''li''' /li/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:兩#Definitions|兩]]
: ''num'' - two; double; duo
: ''pro'' - some; a few


* '''tsola ke haya a'''
* '''le''' /le/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]]
: <small>fox O animal COP</small>
: ''part'' - past tense marker [PST]
: ''The fox is an animal.'' (grammatical)


* '''tsola haya'''
* '''loka''' /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]
: <small>fox animal</small>
: ''n'' - place; location; point; spot
: ''The fox is an animal.'' (idiomatic)


* '''itlaka ke taya nayo a'''
= wa =
: <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP</small>
: ''This man is my husband.'' (grammatical)


* '''itlaka ke taya nayo'''
* '''wa''' /wa/ from ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:واحد|واحد]]/[[wiktionary:我|我]]
: <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS</small>
: ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
: ''This man is my husband.'' (idiomatic)
: ''num'' - one; 1; single
: ''v'' - be alone; be singular


=== Oblique participants ===
* '''waya''' /ˈwa.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]
: ''v'' - grow; mature; develop
: ''n'' - adult; mature thing


Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.


==== Dative and benefactive ====


Dative participants are marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.  
* '''wino''' /ˈwi.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]]
: ''n'' - alcohol; beer; wine
: ''v'' - drink ~


* '''ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta'''
* '''we''' /we/ from PIE [[wiktionary:econstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]
: <small>child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give</small>
: ''num'' - six; 6
: ''The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.''


* '''ikema nya na tlahi'''
* '''weko''' /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]
: <small>PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy</small>
: ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port
: ''This task is easy for me.''


Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.  
* '''wento''' /ˈwen.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]]
: ''n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit


* '''mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu'''
* '''wela''' /ˈwe.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]]
: <small>holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite</small>
: ''prep'' - outside; exterior
: ''The shaman recites a story for the siblings.''
: ''v'' - leave; exit


Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using '''nya''':
= a =


* '''tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye'''
: <small>enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST</small>
: ''The enemies destroyed our village.''


==== Instrumental ====
==== Comitative ====
==== Locative ====


=== Negation ===
* '''alima''' /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:علم|علم]]
: ''v'' - to discern, to find out, to learn
: ''n'' - learning; education; knowledge


Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix '''-k''' (or '''-nke'''), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like '''tlok ak''' (<small>AG-NEG COP-NEG</small>) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).
* '''amo''' /ˈa.mo/ from SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]
: ''n'' - love; affection; adoration
: ''v'' - love; adore; like


* '''intahi ke nok onyotlik'''
* '''ante''' /ˈan.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]
: <small>PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG</small>
: ''n'' - front side; chest; fore area
: ''This child will learn nothing.''
: ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead


* '''mita inyak'''
* '''asi''' /ˈa.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]
: <small>dog hunger-NEG</small>
: ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
: ''The dog is not hungry.''


The suffix '''-nke''' also marks the [[wp:Abessive_case|abessive]], meaning ''without, or lacking''.
* '''awa''' /ˈa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أو|أو]]
: ''part'' - either; or; other


* '''ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye'''
* '''ayo''' /ˈa.jo/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أي|أي]]
: <small>3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST</small>
:''part'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
: ''He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.''


=== Interrogatives ===
* '''e''' /e/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Etymology_2_17|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]]
: ''part'' - and; also; too


There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
* '''ila''' /ˈi.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]
: ''prep'' - toward; at; in direction of
: ''v'' - go (toward); walk; travel


==== Polar questions ====
* '''o''' /o/ from JPN [[wiktionary:を#Etymology_2|を]]
: ''part'' - direct object particle


Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.


{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''mita ina'''
: <small>dog eat</small>
: ''The dog eats.''


* '''nta'i moku'''
* wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
: <small>baby sleep</small>
* en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language
: ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''


* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
: ''You saw the elephant.''


* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
A working phrasebook for [[Kalo]].
: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
: ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
{{col-break}}
* '''mita ina ka'''
: <small>dog eat Q</small>
: ''Does the dog eat?''


* '''nta'i moku ka'''
= Essentials =
: <small>baby sleep Q</small>
: ''Is the baby sleeping?''


* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
: ''Did you see the elephant?''


* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
* '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]])
: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
: ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
{{col-end}}


==== Content questions ====
* '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is"
* '''ne''' - "no; it is not"


Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).  
* '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me."
* '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?]
:: by extension "Do you mind?"
* '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)."
* '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK."


* '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
= Greetings & Goodbyes =
: <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
: ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''


* '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
* '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
: <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
* '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night"
: ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
* '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"


Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
== Civilities ==


* '''ko ta ka'''
* '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?''
: <small>person 2sg Q</small>
** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine."
: ''Who are you?''
** '''...''' - "Not bad."


* '''itla ka'''
: <small>this Q</small>
: ''What is this?''


* '''to kihu ka'''
: <small>manner weather Q</small>
: ''What's the weather like?''


The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+ kanyo
|-
!
! Kala
! gloss
! English
|-
! object
| '''ke mita ina ka''' || <small>O dog eat Q</small> || ''What does the dog eat?''
|-
! person
| '''ko ina ka''' || <small>person eat Q</small> || ''Who eats?''
|-
! possession
| '''koyo mita ina ka''' || <small>person-POSS dog eat Q</small> || ''Whose dog eats?''
|-
! manner
| '''to mita ina ka''' || <small>manner dog eat Q</small> || ''How does the dog eat?''
|-
! place
| '''mo mita ina ka''' || <small>place dog eat Q</small> || ''Where does the dog eat?''
|-
! reason
| '''nye mita ina ka''' || <small>reason dog eat Q</small> || ''Why does the dog eat?''
|-
! time
| '''ama mita ina ka''' || <small>time dog eat Q</small> || ''When does the dog eat?''
|-
! amount
| '''uku mita ina ka''' || <small>amount dog eat Q</small> || ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
|-
! which
| '''ula mita ina ka''' || <small>any dog eat Q</small> || ''Which dog eats?''
|}


=== Passives ===
=== Reflexives and reciprocals ===
== Complex sentences ==
=== Clause coordination ===
=== Coordination of noun phrases ===
=== Complement clauses ===
=== Relative clauses ===
=== Adverbial clauses ===


= Serial verb construction =
* '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see''
== Sequential events ==
=== Lexicalized sequential serials ===
== Grammatical use of serial verbs ==
=== Causatives ===
=== Comparison ===
=== Motion verbs ===
==== Direction and deixis ====
==== Manner of motion ====
==== Source and target ====
=== Posture and orientation ===
=== Aspect ===

Latest revision as of 10:48, 8 April 2025

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext

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  • In syllable codas, [ʃ] replaces [s].
  • In syllable codas, [ʒ] replaces [z].
  • [β] and [ʙ] are in free variation.
  • [ʁ] and [ʀ] are in free variation.

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Miyu allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.

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Three apostrophes each side will bold the text.

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old / wrong

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects. [n] and [l] are in free variation. [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/. /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.


writing

All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul
Kalo Hangul


A katakana method for writing Kalo
Kalo Katakana

allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Syntax

  • wa kome - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o mala amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

singular plural possessive
1st person wa
I; me 		walo
we; us 		wayo
my; mine; our(s)
2nd person ni
you 		nilo
you (all) 		niyo
your(s)
3rd person ko
he; she; him; her; it 		kolo
they; them; those 		koyo
their(s)
  • walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.
  • kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.

  • maka - do; make; cause (from make)
  • yo - possess; have; hold (from 有)

tense, aspect, and mood

Past tense is indicated by the particle le (了) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle sa (سَـ).

tense/mood particle example translation
present - wa ila I go
past le wa ila le I went
future sa wa ila sa I will go
conditional kisa wa ila kisa I would go
  • ko ne kome le - 3sg NEG eat PST - He didn't eat.
  • walo wite sa ko - 1pl see FUT 3sg - We will see her.

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

  • yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
  • ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Particles

determiners

Determiners in kalo precede the noun they modify.

deixis

  • pu - this; these
  • su - that; those

amount

  • aku - many; much (one hundred)
  • kula - all; every; each
  • ne - no; none; zero
  • poka - some; several; a few
  • meno - less; fewer / few; a little
  • maso - more

other-ness

  • asi - such
  • ayo - whichever; whatever
  • oto - other
  • tonye - same

Number

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "ke" precedes the number.

  • ko yo le o kasa ke li
3s have PST O house NUM two
She had two houses.
  • wa wite o nano ke si
1s see O man NUM four
I see four men.

Higher Numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five




ka sa ta na pa ma ya la wa a i u e o

ka

  • kisa /ˈki.sa/ from SPA quizá
part - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
v - listen; hear
n - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
v - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
  • kome /ˈko.me/ from SPA comer
v - eat; consume; drink

sa

part - future tense particle [FUT]
  • saka/na /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA سخن
v - be hot; be warm; burn
n - heat; warmth / fire


  • sana /ˈsa.na/ from ARA سنة
n - year; 365 days
  • sapa /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA سبب
n - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
  • salama /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA سلم
n - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
v - be peaceful; be calm
intj - Peace! Hey! Hi!
  • sawa /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA زوج
n - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
v - marry
  • si /si/ from ZHO 四
num - four; 4
  • siya /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO 下
prep - below; under; beneath
v - be under; be lower
  • su /su/ from TUR şu
part - that; those (over there)
num - zero; 0
n - nothing
v - be empty; be void
  • se /se/ from SPA se
pro - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
  • sosa /ˈso.sa/ from SPA salsa
n - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing

ta

v - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
part/intj - thank you; thanks
  • tapo /ˈta.po/ from ZHO 打破
v - damage; wreck; break; destroy
n - destruction; damage
  • tipa /ˈti.pa/ (or tupa /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA طيب (or טוב)
v - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
intj - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
  • tiya /ˈti.ja/ from SPA tía
n - aunt/uncle; extended family
  • te /te/ from SPA/ZHO de/的
v - to move away from
prep - of; from
  • tenpo /ˈtem.po/ from SPA tiempo
n - time; moment; period
  • tela or talo /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/ from ENG tell
n - language; talk; speech
v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
  • tonpa /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO 同胞
n - sibling; compatriot; friend
  • tonye /ˈto.ɲe/ (or ton /ton/) from ZHO 同一
v - be identical; same; equivalent; equal

na

  • nai /naɪ/ from ZHO 內
v - be inside; within
prep - inside; within; during; while
  • nano /ˈna.no/ from ZHO 男
n - man; male
  • nama /ˈna.ma/ from ARA نام
v - sleep; rest; relax
v - be new; fresh; young
  • nalu /ˈna.lu/ from JPN なる
v - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
  • ni /ni/ from ZHO 你
pro - you [2sg]
num - nine; 9
  • ne /ne/ from ENG nay
part - no; not; negative [NEG]
v - need; require; must
n - obligation; need
  • nen/ka /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO 能
v - be able to; be capable; be possible
n - potential; possibility; capability
  • note /ˈno.te/ from SPA noche
n - night; darkness

pa

  • pa /pa/ from ZHO 八
num - eight; 8
  • pan /pan/ from SPA/ZHO pan/飯
n - bread; food; sustenance
n - word; morpheme; lexeme
  • pina /ˈpi.na/ from ARA ابن
n - child; offspring; kid
  • pu /pu/ from TUR bu
part - this; these (here)
n - evil
v - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
num - five; 5
  • po /po/ from SPA por
prep - by; for; [be] about
v - [go] through; [move] across
  • poka /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA poca
v - be small; little
v - be few; less
  • ponte /ˈpon.te/ from ENG ponder
v - think; ponder; consider; weigh
n - thought; idea; consideration
  • pone /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA poner
v - to put, to place, to set

ma

  • ma /ma/ from ZHO 嗎
part - interrogative particle [Q]
  • maka /ˈma.ka/ from ENG make
n - cause; action; happening
v - do; make; cause; happen
  • maso /ˈma.so/ from SPA más
part - more; again
n - layer; repetition; addition
v - add; repeat; layer
n - woman; female; wife
  • mila /ˈmi.la/ from SPA mil
num - thousand; 1000
  • muki /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA مهم
n - importance; significance
v - be important; matter
  • muna /ˈmu.na/ from ENG moon
n - moon; month
  • me /me/ from FRE mais
part - but; however; although
  • moto /ˈmo.to/ from SPA modo
n - mood; manner; way; method

ya

  • ya /ja/ from ARA يا
part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
  • yati /ˈja.ti/ from ARA يد
n - hand; arm
v - give; transfer
  • yapu /ˈja.pu/ from ARA عفا
n - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
v - pardon; excuse; forgive
  • yame /ˈja.me/ from ARA جمع
n - collection; gathering; group; set
v - gather; collect; assemble; unite
  • yu /ju/ from ZHO 于
v - be in; at; out of
prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of
  • yuma /ˈju.ma/ from ARA يوم
n - day; daylight; 24 hour period
  • ye /je/ from KOR 열
num - ten; 10
  • yeko /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO 以后
prep - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
adv - from now on; henceforth
  • yo /jo/ from ZHO 有
v - have; possess; carry; hold; keep

la

  • laka /ˈla.ka/ from ARA رقم
n - number; digit; amount
v - count; enumerate
  • lata /ˈla.ta/ from SPA lata
n - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
v - carry; tote; transport
  • li /li/ from ZHO 兩
num - two; double; duo
pro - some; a few
  • le /le/ from ZHO 了
part - past tense marker [PST]
  • loka /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA local
n - place; location; point; spot

wa

pro - I; me [1sg]
num - one; 1; single
v - be alone; be singular
v - grow; mature; develop
n - adult; mature thing


  • wino /ˈwi.no/ from SPA vino
n - alcohol; beer; wine
v - drink ~
num - six; 6
  • weko /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA hueco
n - door, hole, orifice, window; port
  • wento /ˈwen.to/ from SPA viento
n - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
  • wela /ˈwe.la/ from SPA fuera
prep - outside; exterior
v - leave; exit

a

  • alima /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA علم
v - to discern, to find out, to learn
n - learning; education; knowledge
  • amo /ˈa.mo/ from SPA amor
n - love; affection; adoration
v - love; adore; like
  • ante /ˈan.te/ from SPA ante
n - front side; chest; fore area
prep - before; in front; forward; ahead
  • asi /ˈa.si/ from SPA así
part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
  • awa /ˈa.wa/ from ARA أو
part - either; or; other
  • ayo /ˈa.jo/ from ARA أي
part - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
  • e /e/ from SPA/ZHO e/和
part - and; also; too
prep - toward; at; in direction of
v - go (toward); walk; travel
  • o /o/ from JPN を
part - direct object particle


  • wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
  • en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


A working phrasebook for Kalo.

Essentials

  • ola - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to aloha)
  • kan/a - "yes; it is"
  • ne - "no; it is not"
  • yapu wa - "Excuse me."
  • nenka ma - "Please." [lit: is (it) possible?]
by extension "Do you mind?"
  • tanka (ta) - "Thank you (very much)."
  • tipa - "(That's) OK."

Greetings & Goodbyes

  • ola yuma - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
  • ola note - "Good evening/night"
  • salama - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"

Civilities

  • moto (niyo) ma - manner 2s.POSS Q - How are you?
    • tipa - "Good/OK/Fine."
    • ... - "Not bad."




  • tenpo ta ne wite - time big no see - Long time no see
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