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akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ronc_Tyu


= Introduction =
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext


Kala is a personal [[Wikipedia:Constructed_language|conlang]] (actually more of an [[Wikipedia:Artistic_language#Personal_languages|artlang]]), based on my aesthetic preferences, not attached to any [[Wikipedia:Worldbuilding|conworld]] or conculture. This language draws on natlangs (natural language), other conlangs, and of course imagination. Kala was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. Kala’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of Kala lexemes are derived or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth), '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
= Heading 1 =
== Characteristics ==


Kala is a context-oriented language. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb). More so in conversation than in written Kala, these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}.
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation.
* {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation.


* '''muya ka''' - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.
* '''ina''' - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
* '''tamatse''' - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
* '''ueha ka''' - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
* '''nyasak''' - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''


Notice that none of the above contain any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable.
== Heading 2 ==
=== Heading 3 ===
==== Heading 4 ====


== Types of words ==
<nowiki>


Kala has two parts of speech. Nouns and verbs are [[wp:Content_word|content words]], while particles (and others) tend to be only [[wp:Function_word|functional]]. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best, and most common example would be <font face="gungsuh"><big><b>이나</b></big></font> '''ina''' /iːˈna/ ‘food; to eat’.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
 
words
 
{{col-break}}
 
ety
 
{{col-break}}
 
abbs
 
{{col-end}}
 
</nowiki>
 
===== Heading 5 =====
====== Heading 6 ======
 
 
: = indentation
 
* Item1
* Item4
** Sub-item 4 a)
*** Sub-item 4 a) 1.
**** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
** Sub-item 4 b)
* Item5
 
# Item1
# Item4
## Sub-item 1
### Sub-sub-item
#### Sub-sub-sub-item
## Sub-item 2
# Item5
 
; Term : Definition1
 
; Term
: Definition1
: Definition2
: Definition3
 
To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.
 
Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''.
 
Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''.
 
'''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line.
 
For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}.
 
 
* [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]]
 
* [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]]
 
= old / wrong =
 
'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
 
'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
 
Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects.
[n] and [l] are in free variation.
[ɲ] is an allophone of /n/.
/x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.
 
 
 
=== writing ===
 
[[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]


* '''na ina''' - <small>1SG eat</small> - ''I eat.''
** '''na ke ina anya''' - <small>1SG O food see</small> - ''I see the food.''


== Borrowing ==


Kala borrows extensively from various natural languages. This is a very small sample of borrowings:
[[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]


''See also: [[Kala/etymology|etymology]]''
== allophony ==
The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.


* '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[Wiktionary:pato|''pato'']]
= Syntax =
* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[Wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[Wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[Wiktionary:橙|''chéng'']]
* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[Wiktionary:wasi'chu|''wasichu'']]
* '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[Wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]


= Phonology =


== Consonants ==
* '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
* '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)


* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
= Nouns =


{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
|+Consonants
!
!Labial
!colspan=2|Alveolar
!Palatal
!Velar
!Glottal
|-
! Nasal
| m ('''m''')
|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
| ɲ ('''ny''')
|
|
|-
! Plosive
| p~b ('''p''')
|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
|
| k~g ('''g''')
| ʔ (''' ' ''')
|-
! Affricate
|
| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
|
|
|
|-
! Continuant
|
| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
|
|
| h~ɦ ('''h''')
|-
! Semivowel
|
|colspan=2|
| j ('''y''')
| w ('''u''')
|
|}


* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
== pronouns ==
* '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/


<small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".


== Vowels ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
{| class="wikitable"  
|+Vowels
!
!
!'''Front'''
! singular
!'''Back'''
! plural
! possessive
|-align=center
|-align=center
!'''Close'''
! 1st person
|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
|-align=center
|-align=center
!'''Mid'''
! 2nd person
|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
| '''ni'''<br>you
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
|-align=center
|-align=center
!'''Open'''  
! 3rd person
|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
|}
|}


'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
=== Diphthongs ===
 
* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''


Phonetically, Kala has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
= Verbs =


== Phonotactics ==
Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.


'''Kala''' words are typically made up of [[wp:Syllable#Open_and_closed|open syllables]] of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most words having syllables exclusively of this type. There is a limited set of syllables allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese.
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
* '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])


* /l/ cannot occur word initially (except in loan words and [[wp:Toponymy|toponyms]]).
== tense, aspect, and mood ==


=== Syllables ===
Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).


{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
|-−
|-
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
!
! a
! e
! i
! o
! u
! ua
! ue
! ya
! ye
! yo
! ai
! ao
! uai
! yao
|-
! p
| align="center"|''(m)pa''
| align="center"|''(m)pe''
| align="center"|''(m)pi''
| align="center"|''(m)po''
| align="center"|''(m)pu''
| align="center"|''pua''
| align="center"|''pue''
| align="center"|''pya''
| align="center"|''pye''
| align="center"|''pyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
|-
! t
| align="center"|''(n)ta''
| align="center"|''(n)te''
| align="center"|''(n)ti''
| align="center"|''(n)to''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! k
| align="center"|''(n)ka''
| align="center"|''(n)ke''
| align="center"|''(n)ki''
| align="center"|''(n)ko''
| align="center"|''(n)ku''
| align="center"|''kua''
| align="center"|''kue''
| align="center"|''kya''
| align="center"|''kye''
| align="center"|''kyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
|-
! m
| align="center"|''ma''
| align="center"|''me''
| align="center"|''mi''
| align="center"|''mo''
| align="center"|''mu''
| align="center"|''mua''
| align="center"|''mue''
| align="center"|''mya''
| align="center"|''mye''
| align="center"|''myo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
|-
! n
| align="center"|''na''
| align="center"|''ne''
| align="center"|''ni''
| align="center"|''no''
| align="center"|''nu''
| align="center"|''nua''
| align="center"|''nue''
| align="center"|''nya''
| align="center"|''nye''
| align="center"|''nyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
|-
! s
| align="center"|''sa''
| align="center"|''se''
| align="center"|''si''
| align="center"|''so''
| align="center"|''su''
| align="center"|''sua''
| align="center"|''sue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! h
| align="center"|''ha''
| align="center"|''he''
| align="center"|''hi''
| align="center"|''ho''
| align="center"|''hu''
| align="center"|''hua''
| align="center"|''hue''
| align="center"|''hya''
| align="center"|''hye''
| align="center"|''hyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
|-
|-
! ts
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
| align="center"|''tsa''
| align="center"|''tse''
| align="center"|''tsi''
| align="center"|''tso''
| align="center"|''tsu''
| align="center"|''tsua''
| align="center"|''tsue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
! tl
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
| align="center"|''tla''
| align="center"|''tle''
| align="center"|''tli''
| align="center"|''tlo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
! l
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
| align="center"|''la''
| align="center"|''le''
| align="center"|''li''
| align="center"|''lo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
|-
! -
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
| align="center"|''a''
| align="center"|''e''
| align="center"|''i''
| align="center"|''o''
| align="center"|''u''
| align="center"|''ua''
| align="center"|''ue''
| align="center"|''ya''
| align="center"|''ye''
| align="center"|''yo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
|}
|}


<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word.</small>
* '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''


== Stress ==
* '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''
[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV).


= Orthography =
== positional verbs ==


* Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script.
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.


= Types of words =
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])


== Content words ==
= Particles =


=== Nouns ===
== determiners ==


Nouns in '''Kala''' are inflected only for number. Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.


==== Gender ====
=== deixis ===


[[wp:Grammatical_gender|Gender]] is not normally marked but can be by '''-na''' (FEM), '''-ta''' (MASC), or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
* '''pu''' - this; these
* '''su''' - that; those


==== Number Marking ====
=== amount ===


* Most nouns in '''Kala''' distinguish singular and plural number. There are several different “regular” ways to form the plural, which are to a certain degree predictable from the phonological shape of the singular form. Nouns can be marked [[wp:Plural|plural]] ('''PL''') by '''-m''' (or '''-lo''' if the final syllable contains /m/ or /p/, or, if the word begins with a vowel).
* '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
** In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence "there are three dogs" would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' "dog three exist" keeps the word '''mita''' "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant.
* '''kula''' - all; every; each
** The collective plural is marked by '''tli'''-, derived from '''tatli''', meaning "group; collection; gathering". It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the [[wp:Collective_noun|collective]] plural ('''COL''').
* '''ne''' - no; none; zero
* '''poka''' - some; several; a few
::
::
* '''ata''' - name > '''atalo''' - names
* '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
* '''mita''' – dog > '''mitam''' - dogs > '''tlimita''' – a pack of dogs
* '''maso''' - more
* '''yama''' – mountain > '''tliyamalo''' – mountain ranges
 
* '''tsaka''' – house > '''tlitsaka''' – neighborhood
=== other-ness ===
* '''puku''' – clothing > '''tlipuku''' – wardrobe
 
* '''asi''' - such
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
* '''oto''' - other
* '''tonye''' - same
 
= Number =


==== Pronouns ====


'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. There is a special pronoun '''na'am''' which is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
Personal pronouns:


* '''na''' - 1st person
* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
* '''ta''' - 2nd person
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
* '''ha''' - 3rd person
: ''She had two houses.''
* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
{{col-break}}
Modifiers:


* '''-m''' - plural
* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
* '''e-''' - patient
: ''I see four men.''
* '''-i''' - reflexive
* '''-yo''' - possessive
{{col-break}}
Other pronouns include:


* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
== Higher Numbers ==
* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
* '''nokua''' - everything
* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
* '''nok''' - nothing
{{col-end}}


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
|+ nkalo
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
|-
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
!
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
! Agent
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
! Patient
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five
! Reflexive
! Possessive
! Reciprocal
|-
! 1sg
| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 2sg
| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 3sg
| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 4sg
| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
| '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
|-
! 2pl
| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
|-
! 3pl
| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
|-
! 4pl
| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
|}


==== Determiners & Demostratives ====


The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).


{{col-begin}}
__NOTOC__
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* '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
* '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
* '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)


Examples:


* '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''A few of these dogs''
* '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Many of those dogs (over there)''
* '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each of those dogs (near you)''
{{col-break}}
Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.


* '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
<center>
* '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
[[#ka|ka]] [[#sa|sa]] [[#ta|ta]] [[#na|na]] [[#pa|pa]] [[#ma|ma]] [[#ya|ya]] [[#la|la]] [[#wa|wa]] [[#a|a i u e o]]
* '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
</center>
* '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
* '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
* '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
* '''maha''' - more; plus
* '''ohi''' - less; fewer
{{col-end}}


===== Correlatives =====
= ka =


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 1000px;"
* '''kisa''' /ˈki.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]
|+ uatse
: ''part'' - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
|-
!
! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
! Negative<br>'''-k'''
! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
|-
! mo<br>''(place)''
| '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
|-
! ko<br>''(person)''
| '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
|-
! uku<br>''(amount)''
| '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
|-
! ama<br>''(time)''
| '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
|-
! so<br>''(kind, type)''
| '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
|-
! no<br>''(thing)''
| '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
|-
! to<br>''(manner, way)''
| '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
|}


=== Verbs ===
* '''kute''' /ˈku.te/ from FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]]
'''Kala''' relies on analytic serial verb constructions, and can therefore get by with very little verbal morphology. Each verb has at most two possible forms: the [[wp:Dynamic_verb|''active'']] and the [[wp:Stative_verb|''stative'']]. Passivity is marked on the subject thus verbs are unmarked and must be analyzed based on surrounding morphology. Active verbs solely denote actions and occurrences and never states in Kala. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an attributive and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result.
: ''v'' - listen; hear


==== Passivity ====
* '''kono''' /ˈko.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]
: ''n'' - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
: ''v'' - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize


The passive voice is formed by prefixing '''e'''- ([[wp:Patient_(grammar)|patient marker]]) to pronouns, and the object marker '''ke''' for nouns, or '''nya''' "for, by, via".
* '''kome''' /ˈko.me/ from SPA [[wiktionary:comer#Spanish|comer]]
: ''v'' - eat; consume; drink


{{col-begin}}
= sa =
{{col-break}}


* '''ha yatsi'''
* '''sa''' /sa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]
: <small>3sg bite</small>
: ''part'' - future tense particle [FUT]
: ''He bites.''


* '''ha yapo'''
* '''saka/na''' /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]]
: <small>3sg build</small>
: ''v'' - be hot; be warm; burn
: ''He builds.''
: ''n'' - heat; warmth / fire
{{col-break}}


* '''eha yatsi'''
: <small>P.3sg bite</small>
: ''He is bitten.''


* '''etla nya ha yapo'''
* '''sana''' /ˈsa.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]]
: <small>P.4sg by 3sg build</small>
: ''n'' - year; 365 days
: ''It is built by him.''
{{col-end}}
==== Tense ====


Kala has three simple tenses; past, present, and future. Present tense is unmarked. However, past ('''-ye''') and future ('''-tli''') tenses can be modified to include immediate future ("''is about to''..."), distant future ("''will...in a long while''"), recent past ("''just'' ..."), and remote past ("...''a long while ago''"). These distinctions are made with the augmentative and diminutive endings '''-ha''' and '''-hi'''.
* '''sapa''' /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]]
: ''n'' - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive


* The present tense can show immediacy by using the adverb '''ima''', "now; at this time":  
* '''salama''' /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سلم#Arabic|سلم]]
:'''ima mita ina''' - <small>now dog eat</small> - ''The dog is eating right now.''
: ''n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
: ''v'' - be peaceful; be calm
: ''intj'' - Peace! Hey! Hi!


* If a temporal adverb is used, the tense suffix may be omitted:
* '''sawa''' /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]]
:'''yomaye nam ina''' - <small>yesterday 1pl eat</small> - We ate yesterday.
: ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
: ''v'' - marry


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
* '''si''' /si/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:四#Definitions|四]]
|+ eme
: ''num'' - four; 4
|-
!
! Kala
! gloss
! English
|-
! Present
| '''mita ina''' || <small>dog eat</small> || ''The dog eats.''
|-
! Past
| '''mita inaye''' || <small>dog eat-PST</small> || ''The dog ate.''
|-
! Recent Past
| '''mita inayehi'''<br>or '''-hye''' || <small>dog eat-REC</small> || ''The dog just ate.''<br>(action just finished)
|-
! Remote Past
| '''mita inayeha''' || <small>dog eat-REM</small> || ''The dog ate long ago.''<br>(before the lifetime of the speaker)
|-
! Future
| '''mita inatli''' || <small>dog eat-FUT</small> || ''The dog will eat.''
|-
! Immediate Future
| '''mita inatlihi'''<br>or '''-tlai''' || <small>dog eat-IMM</small> || ''The dog will eat soon.''<br>(within the day)
|-
! Distant Future
| '''mita inatliha''' || <small>dog eat-DIS</small> || ''The dog will eat a long while from now.''<br>(months from now)
|}


==== Aspect ====
* '''siya''' /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:下#Definitions|下]]
: ''prep'' - below; under; beneath
: ''v'' - be under; be lower


There are four aspects in Kala. The progressive, also called the [[Wikipedia:Continuous_and_progressive_aspects|continuous]] ['''CONT'''], this is used to express an incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time. It is marked with '''-nko''', from '''nkoso''' - "to continue; proceed; progress". The [[Wikipedia:Perfective_aspect|perfective]] aspect indicates that an action is completed ['''PFV''']. It is often translated by the English present perfect (''have done some-thing''). It is marked with '''-pua''', from '''opua''' - "to end; finish; complete". The [[Wikipedia:Inchoative_aspect|inchoative]] aspect refers to the beginning of a state ['''INCH''']. It is marked with '''-mu''', from '''mula''' - "to begin; start; initiate". The [[Wikipedia:Frequentative|frequentative]]  aspect refers to a repeated action ['''FREQ''']. It is marked with '''-nua''', from '''nua''' - "frequent; often; regular".
* '''su''' /su/ from TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]
: ''part'' - that; those (over there)


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
* '''sunya''' /ˈsun.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]]
|+ ti'a
: ''num'' - zero; 0
|-
: ''n'' - nothing
!
: ''v'' - be empty; be void
! Kala
! gloss
! English
|-
! Progressive
| '''mita inanko''' || <small>dog eat-CONT</small> || ''The dog is eating.''
|-
! Perfective
| '''mita inapua''' || <small>dog eat-PFV</small> || ''The dog has eaten.''
|-
! Inchoative
| '''mita inamu''' || <small>dog eat-INCH</small> || ''The dog begins to eat.''
|-
! Frequentative
| '''mita inanua''' || <small>dog eat-FREQ</small> || ''The dog eats often.''
|}


==== Mood ====
* '''se''' /se/ from SPA [[wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]]
: ''pro'' - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun


The negative mood (always marked finally) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or '''–nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).
* '''sosa''' /ˈso.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:salsa#Spanish|salsa]]
: ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing


* '''mita inayek''' - <small>dog eat-PST-NEG</small> - ''The dog did not eat.''
= ta =
* '''mita mokunke''' - <small>dog sleep-NEG</small> - ''The dog does not sleep.''


==== Affix Ordering ====
* '''tanka''' /ˈtaŋ.ka/ from ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke#German|danke]]
: ''v'' - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
: ''part/intj'' - thank you; thanks


Verbs can be marked with several suffixes to add or change meaning. The modals and tense affixes can be added in different order to a verb to create a new meaning…their placement is not always fixed. The negative, adjectival, and plural ending are always final, while other affixes can be varied, but in general they should be ordered:
* '''tapo''' /ˈta.po/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]]
: ''v'' - damage; wreck; break; destroy
: ''n'' - destruction; damage


<tt>STEM-(SIZE/IMPORTANCE)-(MOOD)-(ASPECT)-(TENSE)-(NEGATIVE)</tt>
* '''tipa''' /ˈti.pa/ (or '''tupa''' /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA [[wiktionary:طيب|طيب]] (or [[wiktionary:טוב|טוב]])
: ''v'' - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
: ''intj'' - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!


Example:
* '''tiya''' /ˈti.ja/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]]
: ''n'' - aunt/uncle; extended family


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
* '''te''' /te/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Etymology_2_10|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Definitions_2|的]]
|+
: ''v'' - to move away from
|-
: ''prep'' - of; from
! Verb Stem
! Size/Importance
! Mood
! Aspect
! Tense
! Negative
|-
| '''empa''' || '''-hi''' || '''-pa''' || '''-nko''' || '''-ye''' || '''-k'''
|-
| run || DIM || ABIL || PROG  || PST || NEG
|}


* '''na empahipankoyek'''
* '''tenpo''' /ˈtem.po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]
: <small>1SG run-DIM-able-PROG-PST-NEG</small>
: ''n'' - time; moment; period
: ''I was not able to keep jogging.''


=== Numbers ===
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/  from ENG [[wiktionary:tell|tell]]
: ''n'' - language; talk; speech
: ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
* '''tonpa''' /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞#Mandarin|同胞]]
|+
: ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend
|-
! Kala
! number
! English
! Kala
! number
! English
! Kala
! number
! English
|-
| '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
|-
| '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
|-
| '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
|-
| '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
|-
| '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
|-
| '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
|}


==== Forming Larger Numbers ====
* '''tonye''' /ˈto.ɲe/ (or '''ton''' /ton/) from ZHO [[wiktionary:同一#Mandarin|同一]]
: ''v'' - be identical; same; equivalent; equal


* '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
= na =
* '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
* '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
* '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
* '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024


==== Other Number Forms ====
* '''nai''' /naɪ/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:內#Japanese|內]]
: ''v'' - be inside; within
: ''prep'' - inside; within; during; while


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
* '''nano''' /ˈna.no/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:男#Definitions|男]]
|+
: ''n'' - man; male
|-
! Kala
! number
! English
! ordinal
! multiple
! fractional
|-
| '''na'o''' || 1 || one  || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
|-
| '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth  || '''tiueta'o'''<br>twelve times || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
|-
| '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four  || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
|-
| '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
|-
| '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand  || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
|}


==== Math Operations ====
* '''nama''' /ˈna.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:نام#Verb|نام]]
: ''v'' - sleep; rest; relax


* '''ha'o ma ya'o ke pa'o a'''
* '''naya''' /ˈna.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]]
: <small>3 and 5 O 8 COP</small>
: ''v'' - be new; fresh; young
: ''Three plus five is eight.''


* '''tsa'o ma ya'ok ke na'o a'''
* '''nalu''' /ˈna.lu/ from JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]]
: <small>6 and 5-NEG O 1 COP</small>
: ''v'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
: ''Six and five-less is one.''


* '''ha'o ma tima'o ke ueta'o a'''
* '''ni''' /ni/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:你#Definitions|你]]
: <small>3 and multiple-4 O 12 COP</small>
: ''pro'' - you [2sg]
: ''Three times four is twelve.''


* '''tama'o ma ha'o ke pa'o yeka'''
* '''nun''' /nun/ from PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]]
: <small>24 and 3 O 8 division</small>
: ''num'' - nine; 9
: ''Twenty-four divided by three is eight.''


== Function words ==
* '''ne''' /ne/ from ENG [[wiktionary:nay#Interjection|nay]]
: ''part'' - no; not; negative [NEG]


Function words serve only grammatical functions. They have no meaning by themselves. Function words have to be used together with Content Words to form a meaningful sentence or phrase. Function words are a much smaller category in number but more frequently used. '''Kala''' function words are divided into a few subcategories; particles, conjunctions, and interjections.
* '''nesi''' /ˈne.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]
: ''v'' - need; require; must
: ''n'' - obligation; need


=== Particles ===
* '''nen/ka''' /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:能#Definitions|能]]
: ''v'' - be able to; be capable; be possible
: ''n'' - potential; possibility; capability


==== ke ====
* '''note''' /ˈno.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]]
: The direct object particle. It can often be omitted, especially in simple phrases, when the object is understood.
: ''n'' - night; darkness


* '''na mita anya'''
= pa =
: <small>1sg dog see</small>
: ''I see the dog.''


* '''na tahe yempa ke mita anyaye'''
* '''pa''' /pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]]
: <small>1sg be.under table O dog see-PST</small>
: ''num'' - eight; 8
: ''I saw the dog under the table.''


=== Conjunctions ===
* '''pan''' /pan/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]]
: ''n'' - bread; food; sustenance


There are three coordinating conjunctions in Kala and three correlative conjunctions:
* '''pala''' /ˈpa.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:palabra#Spanish|palabra]]
: ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme


{{col-begin}}
* '''pina''' /ˈpi.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]]
{{col-break}}
: ''n'' - child; offspring; kid
==== coordinating ====
* '''ma''' - and; also
:: '''mita ina ma moku'''
:: <small>dog eat and sleep</small>
:: ''The dog eats and sleeps.''


* '''ua''' - or
* '''pu''' /pu/ from TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]
:: '''mita ina ua moku'''
: ''part'' - this; these (here)
:: <small>dog eat or sleep</small>
:: ''The dog eats or sleeps.''


* '''ehe''' ('''me''') - but; yet
* '''pula''' /ˈpu.la/ from HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]
:: '''mita ina me mokunke'''
: ''n'' - evil
:: <small>dog eat but sleep-NEG</small>
: ''v'' - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
:: ''The dog eats but does not sleep.''
{{col-break}}


==== correlative ====
* '''pen''' /pen/ from ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε#Greek|πέντε]]
* '''yema''' - both X and Y
: ''num'' - five; 5
:: '''mita ina yema empa'''
:: <small>dog eat both.X.and.Y run</small>
:: ''The dog both eats and runs.''<br>''The dog is eating and running simultaneously.''


* '''ue''' - either X or Y
* '''po''' /po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]
:: '''mita ina ue empa'''
: ''prep'' - by; for; [be] about
:: <small>dog eat either.X.or.Y run</small>
: ''v'' - [go] through; [move] across
:: ''The dog is either eating or running.''


* '''uenke''' ('''uek''') - neither X nor Y
* '''poka''' /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]
:: '''mita ina uenke empa'''
: ''v'' - be small; little
:: <small>dog eat neither.X.nor.Y run</small>
: ''v'' - be few; less
:: ''The dog is neither eating nor running.''
{{col-end}}


=== Interjections ===
* '''ponte''' /ˈpon.te/ from ENG [[wiktionary:ponder|ponder]]
: ''v'' - think; ponder; consider; weigh
: ''n'' - thought; idea; consideration


= Word formation =
* '''pone''' /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poner|poner]]
: ''v'' - to put, to place, to set


== Compounding ==
= ma =


== Derivation ==
* '''ma''' /ma/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]
: ''part'' - interrogative particle [Q]


=== Verbalization ===
* '''maka''' /ˈma.ka/ from ENG [[wiktionary:make|make]]
: ''n'' - cause; action; happening
: ''v'' - do; make; cause; happen


=== Nominalization ===
* '''maso''' /ˈma.so/ from SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]
: ''part'' - more; again
: ''n'' - layer; repetition; addition
: ''v'' - add; repeat; layer


= Basic syntax =
* '''mala''' /ˈma.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]]
: ''n'' - woman; female; wife


The basic structure of a '''Kala''' sentence is:
* '''mila''' /ˈmi.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]]
: ''num'' - thousand; 1000


AGENT--PATIENT--VERB (or [[wp:Subject–object–verb|'''SOV''']])
* '''muki''' /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]]
: ''n'' - importance; significance
: ''v'' - be important; matter


The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
* '''muna''' /ˈmu.na/ from ENG [[wiktionary:moon#English|moon]]
: ''n'' - moon; month


* '''mita tlaka anya'''
* '''me''' /me/ from FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]
: <small>dog man see</small>
: ''part'' - but; however; although
: ''The dog sees the man.''


* '''tlaka mita anya'''
* '''moto''' /ˈmo.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]
: <small>man dog see</small>
: ''n'' - mood; manner; way; method
: ''The man sees the dog.''


In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.
= ya =


== Simple sentences ==
* '''ya''' /ja/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]
=== Intransitive clauses ===
: ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~


Intransitive clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
* '''yati''' /ˈja.ti/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يد|يد]]
: ''n'' - hand; arm
: ''v'' - give; transfer


* '''nta'i moku'''  
* '''yapu''' /ˈja.pu/ from ARA [[wiktionary:عفا|عفا]]
: <small>baby sleep</small>
: ''n'' - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
: ''The baby sleeps.''
: ''v'' - pardon; excuse; forgive


* '''mita ina'''  
* '''yame''' /ˈja.me/ from ARA [[wiktionary:جمع|جمع]]
: <small>dog eat</small>
: ''n'' - collection; gathering; group; set
: ''The dog eats.''
: ''v'' - gather; collect; assemble; unite


* '''sama nala'''  
* '''yu''' /ju/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Definitions|于]]
: <small>sun shine</small>
: ''v'' - be in; at; out of
: ''The sun shines.''
: ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of


* '''kamahi ke naha ya'e'''
* '''yuma''' /ˈju.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]
: <small>town-DIM O river be.near</small>
: ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period
: ''There is a village near the river.''


* '''ke apua muyapua'''  
* '''ye''' /je/ from KOR [[wiktionary:열#Korean|열]]
: <small>O song do-PFV</small>
: ''num'' - ten; 10
: ''The song has been sung.''


=== Transitive clauses ===
* '''yeko''' /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以后]]
: ''prep'' - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
: ''adv'' - from now on; henceforth


Clauses with transitive verbs follow a SOV pattern.
* '''yo''' /jo/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]]
: ''v'' - have; possess; carry; hold; keep


* '''ona ke matla kuha'''
= la =
: <small>mother O stew cook</small>
: ''The mother is cooking stew.''


* '''tasako ke masala yake'''
* '''laka''' /ˈla.ka/ from ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]]
: <small>hunt-AG O deer-INDEF chase</small>
: ''n'' - number; digit; amount
: ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
: ''v'' - count; enumerate


* '''kyali ke itohuatla peha'''  
* '''lata''' /ˈla.ta/ from SPA [[wiktionary:lata#Spanish|lata]]
: <small>spear O tree-oak pierce</small>
: ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
: ''The spear pierces the oak tree.''
: ''v'' - carry; tote; transport


* '''tasako ke mitla hita ma ne masa mata'''
* '''li''' /li/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:兩#Definitions|兩]]
: <small>hunt-AG O arrow cast and DO deer kill</small>
: ''num'' - two; double; duo
: ''The hunter shoots an arrow and kills the deer.''
: ''pro'' - some; a few


=== Predication ===
* '''le''' /le/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]]
: ''part'' - past tense marker [PST]


Nominal predicates are formed with the copula '''a''', using SOV word order. However, more common is the idiomatic omission of the copula and object marker.
* '''loka''' /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]
: ''n'' - place; location; point; spot


* '''tsola ke haya a'''
= wa =
: <small>fox O animal COP</small>
: ''The fox is an animal.'' (grammatical)


* '''tsola haya'''
* '''wa''' /wa/ from ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:واحد|واحد]]/[[wiktionary:我|我]]
: <small>fox animal</small>
: ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
: ''The fox is an animal.'' (idiomatic)
: ''num'' - one; 1; single
: ''v'' - be alone; be singular


* '''itlaka ke taya nayo a'''
* '''waya''' /ˈwa.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]
: <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS COP</small>
: ''v'' - grow; mature; develop
: ''This man is my husband.'' (grammatical)
: ''n'' - adult; mature thing


* '''itlaka ke taya nayo'''
: <small>PROX-man O husband 1sg.POSS</small>
: ''This man is my husband.'' (idiomatic)


=== Oblique participants ===


Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the patient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of a preposition.
* '''wino''' /ˈwi.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]]
: ''n'' - alcohol; beer; wine
: ''v'' - drink ~


==== Dative and benefactive ====
* '''we''' /we/ from PIE [[wiktionary:econstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]
: ''num'' - six; 6


Dative participants are marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
* '''weko''' /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]
: ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port


* '''ntahi ke nyotlomi nya kinti yeta'''
* '''wento''' /ˈwen.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]]
: <small>child O nut-PAUC BEN squirrel give</small>
: ''n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
: ''The child gives a few nuts to the squirrel.''


* '''ikema nya na tlahi'''
* '''wela''' /ˈwe.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]]
: <small>PROX-task BEN 1sg be.easy</small>
: ''prep'' - outside; exterior
: ''This task is easy for me.''
: ''v'' - leave; exit


Benefactive participants are also marked with the preposition '''nya''' ‘for, by, via’.
= a =


* '''mekatlo nya ntakum ke tsani yomu'''
: <small>holy-AG BEN sibling-PL O story recite</small>
: ''The shaman recites a story for the siblings.''


Antibenefactive participants are marked like ordinary datives using '''nya''':


* '''tekim nya kamahi namyo tanyaye'''
* '''alima''' /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:علم|علم]]
: <small>enemy-PL BEN town-DIM 1pl.POSS destroy-PST</small>
: ''v'' - to discern, to find out, to learn
: ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
: ''n'' - learning; education; knowledge


==== Instrumental ====
* '''amo''' /ˈa.mo/ from SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]
==== Comitative ====
: ''n'' - love; affection; adoration
==== Locative ====
: ''v'' - love; adore; like


=== Negation ===
* '''ante''' /ˈan.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]
: ''n'' - front side; chest; fore area
: ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead


Negation, both of noun phrases and of clauses, is made with the negating suffix '''-k''' (or '''-nke'''), which affixes to the negated element. Kala utilizes multiple negation, like '''tlok ak''' (<small>AG-NEG COP-NEG</small>) - (there isn't anyone / there is no-one).
* '''asi''' /ˈa.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]
: ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so


* '''intahi ke nok onyotlik'''
* '''awa''' /ˈa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أو|أو]]
: <small>PROX-child O thing-NEG learn-FUT-NEG</small>
: ''part'' - either; or; other
: ''This child will learn nothing.''


* '''mita inyak'''
* '''ayo''' /ˈa.jo/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أي|أي]]
: <small>dog hunger-NEG</small>
:''part'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
: ''The dog is not hungry.''


The suffix '''-nke''' also marks the [[wp:Abessive_case|abessive]], meaning ''without, or lacking''.
* '''e''' /e/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Etymology_2_17|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]]
: ''part'' - and; also; too


* '''ha ke’e hatsanke nya potsi hayo kayoye'''
* '''ila''' /ˈi.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]
: <small>3SG so luck-ABE for wallet 3SG.POSS lose-PST</small>
: ''prep'' - toward; at; in direction of
: ''He was unlucky enough to lose his wallet.''
: ''v'' - go (toward); walk; travel


=== Interrogatives ===
* '''o''' /o/ from JPN [[wiktionary:を#Etymology_2|を]]
: ''part'' - direct object particle


There are two types of questions: [[Wikipedia:Yes–no_question|Polar]], those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.


==== Polar questions ====


Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
* wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
* en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''mita ina'''
: <small>dog eat</small>
: ''The dog eats.''


* '''nta'i moku'''
A working phrasebook for [[Kalo]].
: <small>baby sleep</small>
: ''The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.''


* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye'''
= Essentials =
: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST</small>
: ''You saw the elephant.''


* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye'''
: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST</small>
: ''The doctor gave you the medicine.''
{{col-break}}
* '''mita ina ka'''
: <small>dog eat Q</small>
: ''Does the dog eat?''


* '''nta'i moku ka'''
* '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]])
: <small>baby sleep Q</small>
: ''Is the baby sleeping?''


* '''ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka'''
* '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is"
: <small>2SG O elephant see-PST Q</small>
* '''ne''' - "no; it is not"
: ''Did you see the elephant?''


* '''tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka'''
* '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me."
: <small>heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q</small>
* '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?]
: ''Did the doctor give you the medicine?''
:: by extension "Do you mind?"
{{col-end}}
* '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)."
* '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK."


==== Content questions ====
= Greetings & Goodbyes =


Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
* '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
* '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night"
* '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"


* '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
== Civilities ==
: <small>2SG O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
: ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''


* '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
* '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?''
: <small>truly 2sg O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine."
: ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
** '''...''' - "Not bad."


Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' ‘person’, '''mo''' ‘place’, '''to''' ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:


* '''ko ta ka'''
: <small>person 2sg Q</small>
: ''Who are you?''


* '''itla ka'''
: <small>this Q</small>
: ''What is this?''


* '''to kihu ka'''
: <small>manner weather Q</small>
: ''What's the weather like?''


=== Passives ===
=== Reflexives and reciprocals ===
== Complex sentences ==
=== Clause coordination ===
=== Coordination of noun phrases ===
=== Complement clauses ===
=== Relative clauses ===
=== Adverbial clauses ===


= Serial verb construction =
* '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see''
== Sequential events ==
=== Lexicalized sequential serials ===
== Grammatical use of serial verbs ==
=== Causatives ===
=== Comparison ===
=== Motion verbs ===
==== Direction and deixis ====
==== Manner of motion ====
==== Source and target ====
=== Posture and orientation ===
=== Aspect ===

Latest revision as of 10:48, 8 April 2025

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext

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  • In syllable codas, [ʃ] replaces [s].
  • In syllable codas, [ʒ] replaces [z].
  • [β] and [ʙ] are in free variation.
  • [ʁ] and [ʀ] are in free variation.

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Miyu allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.

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To italicize text, put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.

Three apostrophes each side will bold the text.

Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces bold italics.

Italic and bold formatting works correctly only within a single line.

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old / wrong

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects. [n] and [l] are in free variation. [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/. /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.


writing

All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul
Kalo Hangul


A katakana method for writing Kalo
Kalo Katakana

allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Syntax

  • wa kome - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o mala amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

singular plural possessive
1st person wa
I; me 		walo
we; us 		wayo
my; mine; our(s)
2nd person ni
you 		nilo
you (all) 		niyo
your(s)
3rd person ko
he; she; him; her; it 		kolo
they; them; those 		koyo
their(s)
  • walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.
  • kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.

  • maka - do; make; cause (from make)
  • yo - possess; have; hold (from 有)

tense, aspect, and mood

Past tense is indicated by the particle le (了) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle sa (سَـ).

tense/mood particle example translation
present - wa ila I go
past le wa ila le I went
future sa wa ila sa I will go
conditional kisa wa ila kisa I would go
  • ko ne kome le - 3sg NEG eat PST - He didn't eat.
  • walo wite sa ko - 1pl see FUT 3sg - We will see her.

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

  • yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
  • ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Particles

determiners

Determiners in kalo precede the noun they modify.

deixis

  • pu - this; these
  • su - that; those

amount

  • aku - many; much (one hundred)
  • kula - all; every; each
  • ne - no; none; zero
  • poka - some; several; a few
  • meno - less; fewer / few; a little
  • maso - more

other-ness

  • asi - such
  • ayo - whichever; whatever
  • oto - other
  • tonye - same

Number

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "ke" precedes the number.

  • ko yo le o kasa ke li
3s have PST O house NUM two
She had two houses.
  • wa wite o nano ke si
1s see O man NUM four
I see four men.

Higher Numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five




ka sa ta na pa ma ya la wa a i u e o

ka

  • kisa /ˈki.sa/ from SPA quizá
part - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
v - listen; hear
n - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
v - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
  • kome /ˈko.me/ from SPA comer
v - eat; consume; drink

sa

part - future tense particle [FUT]
  • saka/na /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA سخن
v - be hot; be warm; burn
n - heat; warmth / fire


  • sana /ˈsa.na/ from ARA سنة
n - year; 365 days
  • sapa /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA سبب
n - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
  • salama /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA سلم
n - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
v - be peaceful; be calm
intj - Peace! Hey! Hi!
  • sawa /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA زوج
n - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
v - marry
  • si /si/ from ZHO 四
num - four; 4
  • siya /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO 下
prep - below; under; beneath
v - be under; be lower
  • su /su/ from TUR şu
part - that; those (over there)
num - zero; 0
n - nothing
v - be empty; be void
  • se /se/ from SPA se
pro - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
  • sosa /ˈso.sa/ from SPA salsa
n - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing

ta

v - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
part/intj - thank you; thanks
  • tapo /ˈta.po/ from ZHO 打破
v - damage; wreck; break; destroy
n - destruction; damage
  • tipa /ˈti.pa/ (or tupa /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA طيب (or טוב)
v - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
intj - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
  • tiya /ˈti.ja/ from SPA tía
n - aunt/uncle; extended family
  • te /te/ from SPA/ZHO de/的
v - to move away from
prep - of; from
  • tenpo /ˈtem.po/ from SPA tiempo
n - time; moment; period
  • tela or talo /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/ from ENG tell
n - language; talk; speech
v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
  • tonpa /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO 同胞
n - sibling; compatriot; friend
  • tonye /ˈto.ɲe/ (or ton /ton/) from ZHO 同一
v - be identical; same; equivalent; equal

na

  • nai /naɪ/ from ZHO 內
v - be inside; within
prep - inside; within; during; while
  • nano /ˈna.no/ from ZHO 男
n - man; male
  • nama /ˈna.ma/ from ARA نام
v - sleep; rest; relax
v - be new; fresh; young
  • nalu /ˈna.lu/ from JPN なる
v - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
  • ni /ni/ from ZHO 你
pro - you [2sg]
num - nine; 9
  • ne /ne/ from ENG nay
part - no; not; negative [NEG]
v - need; require; must
n - obligation; need
  • nen/ka /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO 能
v - be able to; be capable; be possible
n - potential; possibility; capability
  • note /ˈno.te/ from SPA noche
n - night; darkness

pa

  • pa /pa/ from ZHO 八
num - eight; 8
  • pan /pan/ from SPA/ZHO pan/飯
n - bread; food; sustenance
n - word; morpheme; lexeme
  • pina /ˈpi.na/ from ARA ابن
n - child; offspring; kid
  • pu /pu/ from TUR bu
part - this; these (here)
n - evil
v - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
num - five; 5
  • po /po/ from SPA por
prep - by; for; [be] about
v - [go] through; [move] across
  • poka /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA poca
v - be small; little
v - be few; less
  • ponte /ˈpon.te/ from ENG ponder
v - think; ponder; consider; weigh
n - thought; idea; consideration
  • pone /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA poner
v - to put, to place, to set

ma

  • ma /ma/ from ZHO 嗎
part - interrogative particle [Q]
  • maka /ˈma.ka/ from ENG make
n - cause; action; happening
v - do; make; cause; happen
  • maso /ˈma.so/ from SPA más
part - more; again
n - layer; repetition; addition
v - add; repeat; layer
n - woman; female; wife
  • mila /ˈmi.la/ from SPA mil
num - thousand; 1000
  • muki /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA مهم
n - importance; significance
v - be important; matter
  • muna /ˈmu.na/ from ENG moon
n - moon; month
  • me /me/ from FRE mais
part - but; however; although
  • moto /ˈmo.to/ from SPA modo
n - mood; manner; way; method

ya

  • ya /ja/ from ARA يا
part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
  • yati /ˈja.ti/ from ARA يد
n - hand; arm
v - give; transfer
  • yapu /ˈja.pu/ from ARA عفا
n - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
v - pardon; excuse; forgive
  • yame /ˈja.me/ from ARA جمع
n - collection; gathering; group; set
v - gather; collect; assemble; unite
  • yu /ju/ from ZHO 于
v - be in; at; out of
prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of
  • yuma /ˈju.ma/ from ARA يوم
n - day; daylight; 24 hour period
  • ye /je/ from KOR 열
num - ten; 10
  • yeko /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO 以后
prep - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
adv - from now on; henceforth
  • yo /jo/ from ZHO 有
v - have; possess; carry; hold; keep

la

  • laka /ˈla.ka/ from ARA رقم
n - number; digit; amount
v - count; enumerate
  • lata /ˈla.ta/ from SPA lata
n - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
v - carry; tote; transport
  • li /li/ from ZHO 兩
num - two; double; duo
pro - some; a few
  • le /le/ from ZHO 了
part - past tense marker [PST]
  • loka /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA local
n - place; location; point; spot

wa

pro - I; me [1sg]
num - one; 1; single
v - be alone; be singular
v - grow; mature; develop
n - adult; mature thing


  • wino /ˈwi.no/ from SPA vino
n - alcohol; beer; wine
v - drink ~
num - six; 6
  • weko /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA hueco
n - door, hole, orifice, window; port
  • wento /ˈwen.to/ from SPA viento
n - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
  • wela /ˈwe.la/ from SPA fuera
prep - outside; exterior
v - leave; exit

a

  • alima /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA علم
v - to discern, to find out, to learn
n - learning; education; knowledge
  • amo /ˈa.mo/ from SPA amor
n - love; affection; adoration
v - love; adore; like
  • ante /ˈan.te/ from SPA ante
n - front side; chest; fore area
prep - before; in front; forward; ahead
  • asi /ˈa.si/ from SPA así
part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
  • awa /ˈa.wa/ from ARA أو
part - either; or; other
  • ayo /ˈa.jo/ from ARA أي
part - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
  • e /e/ from SPA/ZHO e/和
part - and; also; too
prep - toward; at; in direction of
v - go (toward); walk; travel
  • o /o/ from JPN を
part - direct object particle


  • wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
  • en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


A working phrasebook for Kalo.

Essentials

  • ola - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to aloha)
  • kan/a - "yes; it is"
  • ne - "no; it is not"
  • yapu wa - "Excuse me."
  • nenka ma - "Please." [lit: is (it) possible?]
by extension "Do you mind?"
  • tanka (ta) - "Thank you (very much)."
  • tipa - "(That's) OK."

Greetings & Goodbyes

  • ola yuma - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
  • ola note - "Good evening/night"
  • salama - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"

Civilities

  • moto (niyo) ma - manner 2s.POSS Q - How are you?
    • tipa - "Good/OK/Fine."
    • ... - "Not bad."




  • tenpo ta ne wite - time big no see - Long time no see
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