Proto-Yarkhic: Difference between revisions

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! Instrumental
! Instrumental
|}
|}
===Particles===
====Conjunctions====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
! colspan=3 rawspan=1 | Paratactical conjunctions
|-
! Copulative
| '''é'''
| and
|-
! Conjunctive
| '''édhò'''
| also
|-
! Disjunctive
| '''cá'''
| or
|-
! Contrastive, exceptional
| '''éno'''
| but
|-
! Consequentive
| '''pʼe'''
| so
|-
! Comparative
| '''kuy'''
| than
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! colspan=3 rowspan=1 | Hypotactical conjunctions
|-
| colspan=2 | '''gwa'''
| to, for
|-
| colspan=2 | '''qúddhò'''
| althought
|-
| colspan=2 | '''yethrab'''
| because
|-
| colspan=2 | '''áchi'''
| if
|-
| colspan=2 | '''dhò'''
| that, providing
|}
====Modifiers====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Restrictive
|  '''bhyêro'''
| only
|-
! Additive
| '''yedhò'''
| yet
|}
====Polarity particles====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Affirmative
| '''dʼê'''
| yes
|-
! Negative<sup>1</sup>
| '''lê'''
| no
|}
<sup>1</sup> Only in independent form.


===Syntax===
===Syntax===

Revision as of 12:28, 12 May 2014

Phonology

Consonants

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Labio-velar Uvular
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ (ɴ)
"Clear" plosive p b t d c ɟ k g q ɢ
Aspirated plosive pʰ bʰ tʰ dʰ cʰ ɟʰ kʰ gʰ qʰ ɢʰ
Ejective plosive pʼ tʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ
Implosive ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ
Fricative s
Trill r (ʀ)
Approximant l j w

Spelling

  • /p t c k q/ p t c k q
  • /pʰ tʰ cʰ kʰ qʰ/ ph th ch kh qh
  • /pʼ tʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ/ p̕ t̕ c̕ k̕ q̕
  • /b d ɟ g ɢ/ b d j g ġ
  • /bʰ dʰ ɟʰ gʰ ɢʰ/ bh dh jh gh ġh
  • /ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ʛ/ b̕ d̕ j̕ g̕ ġ̕
  • /s/ s
  • /m n ɲ ŋ~ɴ/ m n ṇ ŋ
  • /r~ʀ l/ r l
  • /j w/ y w

Vowels

Front Central Back
Unrounded Rounded
Close iː uː
Near-Close ɪ ʊ
Mid-Close eː ɘ ɵ oː
Mid-Open ɛː ɜ ɞ ɔː
Open ä äː

Spelling

  • /iː uː/ í ú
  • /eː oː/ é ó
  • /ɛː ɔː/ ê ô
  • /äː/ a
  • /ɪ ʊ/ i u
  • /ɘ ɵ/ e o
  • /ɜ ɞ/ è ò
  • /ä/ a

Phonotactics

(C)(C)V(ː)(R/s)(C)

Accent

  • Acute accent on initial syllable.

Grammar

Nouns

  • nominative-accusative alignment with marked nominative
  • 3A secundative alignment (S/A = Nominative, D = Pegative, P/R = Accusative, T = Instrumental)
  • 8 cases (suffixal): Nominative, Pegative, Accusative, Instrumental, Genitive, Ablative, Allative, Benefactive
  • noun class system (suffixal): Animate, Inanimate
  • number combined with noun class: singular, paucal, plural
  • definiteness (articles): Gnomic, Indefinite, Definite proper, Definite distant
  • nominal tense (suffixal): past, present, future

Definiteness + [Root + Root extension(s) + (Noun class + Number) + Case + Nominal tense]

Noun class and number

Animate Inanimate
Singular -ar- / -r- banura man - tkacʼa stone
Paucal -akʼ- / -kʼ- banuakʼa few men -akʼ- / -kʼ- tkacʼakʼa few stones
Plural -it- / -t- banuita men -es- / -s- tkacʼesa stones

Declension

Nominative -a wolqhara wolf
Pegative -e wolqhare
Accusative - wolqhar
Instrumental -ní wolqharní by/with wolf
Genitive -yò wolqharyò of wolf
Ablative -tʼo wolqhartʼo from wolf
Allative -ôs wolqharôs to wolf
Benefactive -dʼa wolqhardʼa for wolf

Nominal tense

Past -li kʼámarali ex-wife
Present - kʼámara wife
Future -sú kʼámarasú future wife

Definiteness

Gnomic - banu man
Indefinite ês ês banu a man
Definite proper da da banu the man
Definite distant qhá qhá banu yonder man

Verbs

  • aspects (suffixal): Perfective-Imperfective + Frequentative, Momentane
  • voices (infixal): Active, Reflexive vs Causative
  • three subjective and objective persons (suffixal)
  • three moods (cliticized): Indicative, Conditional, Subjunctive
  • negative verb

(Root + Voice) + Root extension(s) + Aspect + Subject + Object + Mood

Aspect

Main form Frequentative Momentane
Imperfective - swél- to shine -né- swélné- to glisten -
Perfective -ri- swélri- to lighten -yu- swélyu- to glisten (as fully executed, ended series) -tò- swéltò- to glint (as momentaneous event)

Voice

Performative Causative
Active - yôdh- to see -ra- yôradh- to show
Reflexive -si- yôsidh- to see self -ṇi- yôṇidh- to show self

Person

Subject / Agent / Donor
Singular Plural
1. -en / -n I -erò / -rò We, but not you
-emò / -mò We, together with you
2. -es / -s Thou -etò / -tò You all
3. -ey / -y He / she / it -eyò / -yò They all
4. -ek / -k Someone / something
Object / Recipient
Singular Plural
1. -na me -ra us, but not you
-me us, together with you
2. -sa thee -ta you all
3. -ya him / her / it -yak them all
4. -ka Someone / something
Theme
Singular Plural
1. -n I -l we, but not you
-w we, together with you
2. -s Thou -th You all
3. -j He / she / it -j They all
4. -kh Someone / something

Mood

Indicative - êd to go
Conditional -dô êddô would to go
Subjunctive -phú êdphú may to go

Non-finite verbs

Action noun -ló yôdhló vision, seeing
Participles
Adjectival -l- yôdhl- seeing
Adverbial -l-oŋ yôdhloŋ seeing

Adjectives

  • adjectives are replaced by stative verbs and describing nouns.
  • degrees of intensify are instead degrees of comparison.

Numerals

Cardinal numerals

1. bhyêr
2. dow
3. térs
4. cereth
5. pèc
6. sèth
7. sèdír
8. athôr
9. dembhi
10. déth
11. déthirbhyêr
12. déthirdow
20. dowirdéth
21. dowirdéth bhyêr
30 térsirdéth
100. thiti
101. thiti bhyêr
120. thiti dowirdéth
121. thiti dowirdéth bhyêr
200. dowthit
1.000. túskhat
10.000. déth túskhat

Derived numerals

Ordinal Multiplicative Reproductive Distributive Fractional
-[noun class]-i -yáls -sôkh -pá -rídʼ
1. bhyêrri / bhyêri bhyêryáls bhyêrsôkh bhyêrpá bhyêrrídʼ
10. déthri / dethi déthyáls déthsôkh déthpá déthrídʼ
11. déthirbhyêrri / déthirbhyêri déthirbhyêryáls déthirbhyêrsôkh déthirbhyêrpá déthirbhyêrrídʼ
20. dowirdéthri / dowirdéthi dowirdéthyáls dowirdéthsôkh dowirdéthpá dowirdéthrídʼ
21. dowirdéth bhyêrri / dowirdéth bhyêri dowirdéth bhyêryáls dowirdéth bhyêrsôkh dowirdéth bhyêrpá dowirdéth bhyêrrídʼ
100. thitiri / thitiyi thitiyáls thitisôkh thitipá thitirídʼ
101. thiti bhyêrri / thiti bhyêri thiti bhyêryáls thiti bhyêrsôkh thiti bhyêrpá thiti bhyêrrídʼ
120. thiti dowirdéthri / thiti dowirdéthi thiti dowirdéthyáls thiti dowirdéthsôkh thiti dowirdéthpá thiti dowirdéthrídʼ
121. thiti dowirdéth bhyêrri / thiti dowirdéth bhyêri thiti dowirdéth bhyêryáls thiti dowirdéth bhyêrsôkh thiti dowirdéth bhyêrpá thiti dowirdéth bhyêrrídʼ
200. dowthitri / dowthiti dowthityáls dowthitsôkh dowthitpá dowthitrídʼ
1000. túskhatri / túskhati túskhatyáls túskhatsôkh túskhatpá túskhatrídʼ
10.000. déth túskhatri / déth túskhati déth túskhatyáls déth túskhatsôkh déth túskhatpá déth túskhatrídʼ

Pronouns

  • clusivity in 1. person
  • obviative

Personal pronouns

Singular Plural
1. nêkʼ I ròs We, but not you
mòs We, together with you
2. sún Thou tòs You all
3. ya He / she / it yòs They all
4. ka Someone / something

Possessive pronouns

Singular Plural
1. neyi my ròsi our, but not your
mòsi our, together with you
2. súni Thy tòsi Your all
3. yayi His / her / its yòsi Their all
4. kayi Someone / something else's

Prepositions

Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals

ú in, inside Accusative
from inside Ablative
to inside Allative
al on Accusative
from on Ablative
to on Allative
alaŋ above Accusative
from above Ablative
to above Allative
udʼu under Accusative
from under Ablative
to under Allative
kʼete beside Accusative
from beside Ablative
to beside Allative
tóq away Accusative
from away Ablative
to away Allative
údow between Accusative
from between Ablative
to between Allative
tʼawkh behind Accusative
from behind Ablative
to behind Allative
bè out Accusative
from out Ablative
to out Allative
úgál around Accusative
from around Ablative
to around Allative
trôs before, opposite to Accusative
from before, from opposite to Ablative
to before, to opposite to Allative
útháth during, in time of Accusative
from time of Ablative
to time of Allative
ká after Accusative
from after Ablative
to after Allative

Other postpositions

Companion, attributive object tʼa with Instrumental
Lack phá without Genitive
Alternative úklotʼ instead Genitive
Contrary trôtʼa against Allative
Resistance bhisu despite, though Genitive
Stylization údʼlêk along to, according to Instrumental

Particles

Conjunctions

Paratactical conjunctions
Copulative é and
Conjunctive édhò also
Disjunctive cá or
Contrastive, exceptional éno but
Consequentive pʼe so
Comparative kuy than
Hypotactical conjunctions
gwa to, for
qúddhò althought
yethrab because
áchi if
dhò that, providing

Modifiers

Restrictive bhyêro only
Additive yedhò yet

Polarity particles

Affirmative dʼê yes
Negative1 lê no

1 Only in independent form.

Syntax

  • SOV
  • head-final
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