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| ==R-form of the verb==
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| Above we have discussed the R-form of the verb.
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| However there are other verb forms.
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| ==S-form of the verb==
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| This is the subjunctive form. You change the "'''r'''" to an '''"s'''" basically. Nothing comes after the "'''s'''". So there is no tense/aspect or evidentiality expressed on this verb form.
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| '''doikais''' = Let's walk
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| ==ME-form of the verb==
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| This form is used when one action is dependant on another action having taken place.
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| As with the s-form, there is no '''gwomai''' or evidentiality expressed on the verb.
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| ==MI-form of the verb==
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| The same as the me-form but irrealis. With the me-form there is doubt as to when (and indeed if) the thunder/lightning will happen.
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| With the mi-form it is accepted that there is no chance of thunder/lightning ... the storm has passed.
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| ==YA-form of the verb==
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| This form is used for giving orders. When the s-form is used in a main clause, it is gently urging some action. With the ya-form you definitely want some action to happen (and you don't expect a discussion about it).
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| Up until now, 7 protagonists have been expressed in every verb. With the ya-form however only two protagonists can be expressed.
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| '''doikiya''' = walk (when talking to one person)
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| '''doikeya''' = walk (when talking to more than one person)
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| An alternative way to analyse this is to say that there is an '''iya'''-form and an '''eya'''-form. How you choose to analyse it doesn't make any difference to the reality of the situation.
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| ==AI-form of the verb==
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| The '''ai'''-form comprises three functions. In the LIMBAWA linguistic tradition, these are called "noun-'''ai'''", "verb-'''ai'''" and "small-verb-'''ai'''".
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| ===Noun-"ai"===
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| '''nagu''' = strong obligation
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| '''glopu''' = weak obligation
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| '''olda''' = ability
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| '''henti''' = permission
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| '''nagai dara an''' = I must do something
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| '''nagai dari an''' = I had to do something
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| '''glopai dirti an''' = You ought to have done sometime
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| '''glopai doru an''' = He ought to do something
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| '''glopai dora an''' = She ought to be doing something ???
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| ===Verb-"ai"===
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| sing'''ai''' laugh'''ai''' go'''ura home => They go home singing and laughing
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| go'''ura home sing'''ai''' laugh'''ai''' => They go home singing and laughing
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| This is used when things happen at the same time and the subject of all the verbs is the same. Notice that the '''ai'''-forms can come before or after the '''r'''-form verb.
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| This form can not be used when consecutive actions are being described.
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| ===Small-verb-"ai"===
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| The small verbs constitute a subset of verbs. They always follow the '''r'''-form verbs.
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| It is very common to have the following verbs in their ai-form.
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| = to be at ('''bia''') ... this can be interpreted in English as "still" ... or as "not yet" in negative sentences.
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| = to come
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| = to go
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| = to rise
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| = to descend
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| = to enter
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| = to go out
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| = to follow
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| = to cross
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| = to go through
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| = to pass
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| = to return
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| = to do something in a haphazard manner, to do something in an unsatisfactory manner
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| = to scatter about
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| = to hurry
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| The above are often stuck on the end of an utterance ... like a sort of afterthought. They give the utterance a bit more clarity ... a bit more resolution.
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| See what Dixon has in Dyirbal.
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| '''ai'''-form only with '''r'''-form or can also go with '''s'''-form, etc. etc.
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| You can add as many verbs as you want. The added verbs are understood to have the same protagonists, '''gwomai''' and evidentiality as the '''r'''-form verb.
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| pass'''orla''' sing'''ai''' kite '''fly'''ai = He is passing by singing and flying a kite
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| WHAT ABOUT SEPERATE OBJECTS ON THE TWO VERBS ?
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| WHEN WE INTRODUCE "ALONG" (FOR EXAMPLE) WE ARE INTRODUCING A NEW OBJECT IN THE CLAUSE ???
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| == BIA ......... a copula of location==
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| '''bià''' means "to be at"
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| For example '''polo bori london''' = Paul was in London
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| '''polo borta london''' = Paul has been to London
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| '''auto bora lence''' = The car is in the street.
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| '''pele boru nambo''' = Paula will be at home
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| '''bià''' is the rarest of the copulas and has no irregular forms.
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| It is often supplanted by '''sàu''' ... but if this happens a locative particle must be suffixed to the noun (the noun after the copula). For example ;-
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| '''polo rì london.pi''' = Paul was in London
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| '''auto (rà) lence.la''' = The car was in the street (literally "on the street")
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| '''pele ù rù namboʔe''' = Paula will not be at home
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| The three verbs '''sàu''', '''gaza''' and '''bià''' are special verbs. (LINGUISTIC JARGON ... They are called copulas... in Latin "copulare" meant "to tie", so a copula is a verb that ties. The appropriateness of this is obvious for '''sau''' and '''bia''') In Limbawa they differ from normal verbs, in that they require a specific word order. Also '''s''' (the ergative case) is never suffixed to a noun, as normally happens when a verb is associated with two nouns.
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| ==GAZA .... a copula of existence==
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| '''gaza''' takes only one noun. It is how you say "there is ... "
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| '''gaza''' is similar to '''sàu''' in that it takes the 12 verb modifiers but 3 of them are wildly irregular. It is the same 3 tense/aspect forms that are irregular. Namely ;-
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| '''*gazora''' => '''ʕá''' meaning "there is"
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| '''*gazori''' => '''ʕái''' meaning "there was"
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| '''*gazoru''' => '''ʔáu''' meaning "there will be"
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| Actually while theoretically '''gaza''' can have the full range of modifiers enjoyed by a normal verb, in reality all forms other than '''ʕá''', '''ʕái''', '''ʔáu''' are extremely rare. Occasionally you come across the "infinitive" '''gaza''' (which is actually used as a noun).
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| There is no word that corresponds to "have". The usual way to say "I have a coat" is "there exists a coat mine" = '''ʕá kaunu pan'''
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| For some reason the internal possessives are not allowed with '''gaza'''. That is you can not say '''ʔá kaunapu''', but must say '''ʔá kaunu pan'''
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| As I said above, '''gaza''' always comes with one noun. If it comes with an adjective, then that adjective can be considered a noun (well this is one way to look at it)
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| '''pona''' = cold (an adjective), '''ponama''' = coldness (a noun)
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| ''' pona''' = "it is cold" ... not '''*ʔá ponama'''
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| '''ʔá pona pan''' meaning "I feel cold" (word for word ... "there is coldness mine")
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| There is fixed word order : it is always '''gaza''' followed by the noun.
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| A little quirk of this verb, is that the negation particle '''mo''' comes immediately after instead of immediately before.
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| '''ʔá mo pona''' = "it is not cold"
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| The particles '''lói''' (probably) and '''màs''' (maybe) come as normal, before the verb.
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| '''lói ʔáu pona''' = It will probably be cold
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| Also the evidentials are affixed to the wild forms. Just as with '''sàu'''.
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| '''lói ʔáun mò pona''' = They say it will probably not be cold
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| '''loi.foi ʔáun mò pona''' = Do they say it will probably not be cold ?
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| ==SAU ....... the main copula==
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| '''sàu''' is the LIMBAWA copula. That is it is the equivalent of "to be" in English, whish has such forms as "be", "is", "was", "were" and "are".
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| This verb is slightly irregular in LIMBAWA as well. The three forms '''*sari''', '''*saru''' and '''*sara''' which you would expect to see, are replaced with '''rì''', '''rù''' and '''rà'''
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| Notice that person and number is not included in these three irregular forms, so it is sometimes necessary to have a pronoun in situations where it would normally be dropped.
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| Actually '''rà''' is usually missed out completely.
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| It is mostly used for emphasis; like when you are refuting a claim
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| Person A) ... '''gì mò rà moltai''' = You aren't a doctor
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| Person b) ... '''pà rà moltai''' = I am a doctor
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| Notice that '''rà''' is always used when you have '''mò''' the negative particle. This particle must always be directly in front of a verb, so '''rà''' must be expressed.
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| Another situation where '''rà''' tends to be used is when the subject or the copula complement are long trains of words. For example ????????
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| The evidentials are appended to the wild forms as normal. So we have '''ràn''', '''ràs''', '''rìn''', '''rià''', '''rìs''', '''rùn''', '''rùs''',
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| ==..... Three infixes for Verb => Verb==
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| Limbawa has a three process for generating new verbs from existing verbs.
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| These three processes can be done to any verb.
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| .... -el-
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| If you split a verb and insert '''el''' between the final vowel (of the '''gamba''') and the rest of the word, you give the added meaning of "to begin", "inception" or "to start off". For example ;-
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| '''sàu''' = to be
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| '''selau''' = to become
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| '''bía''' = to be at
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| '''belia''' = to arrive at
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| '''doika''' = to walk
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| '''doikela''' = to start to walk
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| '''logo doikorwi''' = Roger used to walk ...
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| '''logo doikelorwi''' = Roger used to start walking ...
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| '''gazelari''' = I was born
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| '''à ri kiʔo''' = it was yellow ... remember that '''ri''' is an irregular form. The regular form would be '''*sori'''.
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| '''à lori kiʔo''' = it became yellow ... '''selau''' is irregular. If it were regular we would have the form '''*a selori ki@o'''
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| So there are thee irregular verbs in Limbawa (well if you count '''selau''' as a different word from '''sau''') ... '''sàu''', '''bía''' and '''selau'''.
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| .... -ow-
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| If you split a verb and insert '''ow''' between the final vowel of and the rest of the word, you get the meaning that you are making somebody else do the verb. For example ;-
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| '''ò timpiri''' = you hit him
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| '''(pás) gís ò timpowari''' = I made you hit him
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| A '''gamba''' form exists for this construction also. For example;-
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| '''doikowo''' = to make (somebody) walk
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| '''gasowa''' has the special meaning "to give birth" and doesn't mean "to create".
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| .... -ay-
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| If you split a verb and insert '''ay''' between the final vowel of and the rest of the word, you get the meaning that the verb is being attempted. For example ;-
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| '''selbaru à''' = I will drink it
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| '''selbayaru à''' = I will try and drink it
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| ==..... Two affixes for Verb => Adjective==
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| LINGUISTIC JARGON ... these two transformations are called "participles". Limbawa has two participles (as has English). The Limbawa and the English participles share the exact same function. In English these 2 participles are usually called "the present participle" and "the past participle" although "active participle" and "passive participle" would be far more appropriate. In Limbawa there is no special name for these 2 transformations.
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| '''solbe''' = to drink
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| '''heŋgo''' = to live (or it could mean "a life")
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| '''soŋkau''' = to die (or it could mean "death")
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| '''glabu''' = person
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| '''moʃi''' = water
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| '''moʃi solbi''' = the drunk water, the water that has been drunk ... an example of the so-called "past participle".
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| '''glabu solbana''' = the drinking person, the person that is drinking, the person that drinks ... an example of the so-called "present participle".
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| '''heŋgana''' = alive, living
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| '''soŋki''' = dead
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| ==..... Eight infixes for Noun => Noun ==
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| In the above section we learnt how to say "mine", "yours", etc. etc.. But how do we say "my", "your", etc. etc.
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| Well these words (which would be considered adjectives in the Limbawa linguistic tradition) are represented by infixes. The table below shows how it works.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| my coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunapu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| our coat ("our" includes "you")
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| |align=center| '''kaunayu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| our coat ("our excludes "you")
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| |align=center| '''kaunawu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| your coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunigu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| your coat (with "you" being plural)
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| |align=center| '''kauneju'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| his/her coat
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| |align=center| '''kaunonu'''
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| |-
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| |align=center| their coat
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| |align=center| '''kaununu'''
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| |}
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| It can be seen that the infixes are the same as the plain pronouns, but the order of the consonant and vowel are swapped over.
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| There could also be another entry in the table above. That is the infix '''-it-''' (this is the possessive equivalent of the reflexive pronoun '''ti.''' (see above). It is probably easiest to explain '''-it-''' by way of example;-
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| '''polo ?osoru @autito''' = Paul will drive his car (In English we would normally interpret this to mean "Paul will drive his own car". In Limbawa '''polo ?osoru @autito''' must ALWAYS be interpreted as such.
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| '''polo ?osoru @autono''' = Paul will drive his car (In English, this COULD be interpreted as "Paul will drive someone else's car". In Limbawa '''polo ?osoru @autono''' would always be interpreted as such.
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| ==.....Two prefixes for Noun => Noun==
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| '''genhu''' = house
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| '''ju.genhu''' = a mansion
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| '''ti.genhu''' = a cottage
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| Please note that I am just inserting the period, to make it easy to see the two components of the word. It is a single multi-syllable word, so of course is in the neutral tone.
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| ==..... Getting the opposite by adding "u"==
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| ===.... A prefix for adjectives===
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| '''taitau''' = many
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| '''utaitau''' = few
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| '''mutu''' = important
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| '''umutu''' = unimportant
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| ===.... and a prefix for adverb===
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| '''toke''' = exactly
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| '''utoke''' = approximately
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| '''nan''' = for a long time
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| '''unan''' = not for a long time
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| '''unanu''' => momentarily ... (maybe derived from '''unan unan''' originally)
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| ===.... and a prefix for nouns===
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| '''mezna''' = to fight
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| '''meznana''' = combatant
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| '''umeznana''' = non-combatant
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| As in English, not found that often. Sometimes found in rule books.
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| ===.... but an infix for verbs===
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| There is a reason why we do not simply prefix '''u''' to the verbs also.
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| '''kanja''' = to fold
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| '''kunjana''' = "folding" (an adjective) or "one that folds" (a noun)
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| '''ukunjana''' = "one that doesn't fold"
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| Suppose we did simply prefix '''u''' to the verb. Then "to unfold" would be '''ukanja''', and hence '''ukanjana''' would be a noun meaning "one that unfolds". But if you look up a bit, you can see that this form ('''ukanjana''') already has the meaning "one that doesn't fold". This would cause confusion.
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| {| border=1
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| |align=center| '''kunja'''
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| |align=center| to fold
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| |align=center| '''kunjua'''
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| |align=center| to unfold
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''laiba'''
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| |align=center| to cover
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| |align=center| '''laibua'''
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| |align=center| to uncover
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''fuŋga'''
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| |align=center| to fasten, to lock
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| |align=center| '''fuŋgua'''
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| |align=center| to unfasten, to unlock
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''benda'''
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| |align=center| to assemble, to put together
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| |align=center| '''bendua'''
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| |align=center| to take apart, to disassemble
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''pauca'''
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| |align=center| to stop up, to block
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| |align=center| '''paucua'''
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| |align=center| to unstop
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''sensa'''
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| |align=center| to weave
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| |align=center| '''sensua'''
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| |align=center| to unravel
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''fiŋka'''
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| |align=center| to put on clothes, to dress
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| |align=center| '''fiŋkua'''
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| |align=center| to undress
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| |-
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| |align=center| '''tasta'''
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| |align=center| to tangle
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| |align=center| '''tastua'''
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| |align=center| to untangle
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| |}
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| Note that in any other form but the '''gamba''', the '''u''' changes to a '''w'''. For example ;-
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| '''fiŋkwori''' = he undressed
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