User:Aquatiki/Sandbox2

PIE (-4500)

Cowgill's Law

Osthoff's Law

Sievers's law

Proto-Germanic (-500) Grimm's Law, Verner's Law, Primärberührung Proto-Germanic consonants Type Bilabial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Labial– velar Nasal m n (ŋ) (ŋʷ) Stop p b t d k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ Fricative ɸ (β) θ (ð) s z x (ɣ) xʷ Approximant l j w Trill r Vowels i iː ĩ ĩː e eː ɛː ɛːː ɑ ɑː ɑ̃ ɑ̃ː ɔː ɔːː ɔ̃ː ɔ̃ːː u uː ũ ũː Diphthongs Short: /ɑu/, /ɑi/, /eu/, /iu/ (from i-umlaut of /eu/) before /i/ or /j/ Long: /ɔːu/, /ɔːi/, (possibly /ɛːu/, /ɛːi/) ô (aka ɔːː) became -a in ON and OE, but -oin OHG -ǭ became -a in OHG but -e in OE -ōn became -ōn in OHG but -an in OE

Proto-Celtic (-800) Proto-Celtic consonants Type  Bilabial   Alveolar   Palatal   Velar  Labial– velar Nasal m n (ŋ) (ŋʷ) Plosive b t d k ɡ kʷ ɡʷ Fricative ɸ s x Approximant l j w Trill r then kʷ/p/_ (P-Celtic) Vowels i iː e a aː o oː u uː and au, ai, ou, oi

Through Roman Times

Western Germanic Ingvaeonic and Irminonic /ɛː/, also written ǣ, to ā umlaut z/r/V_V demonstrative this C/C²/_j West Germanic gemination Decision Time! V/Ã/_NF Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law (vowel + nasal + voiceless fricative = nasal-vowel + fric.) k/ts/_[ie] palatalization of k

Insular Celtic a.k.a Brittonic keep am and an u/gw/#_ s/h/#_V s//#_[lmn] sp/f/#_ sr/fr/#_ sw/xw/#_ P/B/V_V Voiceless stops become voiced stops in intervocalic position B/Z/V_V Voiced plosives and /m/ became soft spirants in an intervocalic position B/Z/_L Voiced plosives and /m/ became soft spirants before liquids P/F/_[LV] Geminated voiceless plosives transformed into spirants before a vowel or liquid P/F/L_ Voiceless stops become spirants after liquids B//N_ Voiced stops were assimilated to a preceding nasal later ɣ/j/_

Pre-1066

To Old English Backing and nasalization of West Germanic a and ā before a nasal consonant Loss of n before a spirant, resulting in lengthening and nasalization of preceding vowel The present and preterite plurals reduced to a single form A-fronting: WGmc a, ā → æ, ǣ, even in the diphthongs ai and au (see Anglo-Frisian brightening) palatalization of Proto-Germanic *k and *g before front vowels (but not phonemicization of palatals) A-restoration: æ, ǣ → a, ā under the influence of neighboring consonants Second fronting: OE dialects (except West Saxon) and Frisian ǣ → ē A-restoration: a restored before a back vowel in the following syllable (later in the Southumbrian dialects); Frisian æu → au → Old Frisian ā/a OE breaking; in West Saxon palatal diphthongization follows i-mutation followed by syncope; Old Frisian breaking follows Phonemicization of palatals and assibilation, followed by second fronting in parts of West Mercia Smoothing and back mutation loss of high vowels in syllable after stress Labial Dental Alveolar Post- alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal m (n̥) n (ŋ) Stop p b t d k ɡ Affricate tʃ (dʒ) Fricative f (v) θ (ð) s (z) ʃ (ç) (x ɣ) h Approximant (l̥) l j (ʍ) w Trill (r̥) r

To Middle Welsh Vː → V / _# ei → eː st → sː (with some exceptions) initial str → צ , middle/end str → sr ai → ɛ s → ∅ / V_V V → ə / _(C)#, also in proclitics s → ∅ / x_ {au,eu,ou} → ∅ uː {oi,ɔː} → yː uː j → ð / V_ i u → e o / _Ca yː → ɨ p t k {b,m} d ɡ → b d ɡ v ð ɣ / _V aː → ɔː a o → ei {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)# a → {ɨ,ei} / _(C…)j(C…)# V → ɨ / _(C…)j(C…)# {a,o} → e / _(C…)i(ː) {a,e,o} → ei / _(C…)j V → ∅ / _# mb nd ŋɡ → mː nː ŋː e → i / _N $ → h / V_ (what $ is is unclear) V → ∅ / _[+intertonic] pː tː kː → f θ x p t k → f θ x / {r,l}_ ɣ → i / _C xt → iθ ɣ → i / C_V ɛː → ui ɔː → au / when stressed l → ɬ / _t w → gw / #[aeou] - w to gw before vowels-not-i mp nt ŋk → m̥ n̥ ŋ̊ ɔ → ə / #_sC l r → ɬ r̥ / #_ ɣ → ə / _# Labial Dental Alveolar Post- alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal m̥ m n̥ n ŋ̊ ŋ Stop p b t d k g Fricative f v θ ð s z ɬ (ʃ) x h Approximant l j w Trill r̥ r